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I. Identification
Why are Tigers and Rhinos threatened?
Tigers and Rhinos are among the most critically endangered large mammals in the world today and are the focus of extensive global conservation efforts aimed at halting their decline. This century has already seen major losses, with the extinction of Caspian, Bali, and Javan tigers. According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), fewer than 6,000 tigers currently remain in the wild - a decline of 95% since the beginning of this century. Tigers are primarily threatened by lawless poachers who sell tiger bones and other body parts for use in traditional Asian medicines. Poaching has accelerated to such a point that it is now believed to be the most urgent threat to the species’ survival. The sale of one tiger skeleton can yield profits equivalent to more than what some local people earn in 10 years.
Much the same can be said for Rhinos. The WWF says that in east and southern Africa, black rhino numbers have dropped to fewer than 2,500 - a decline of more than 95% since 1970. Rhinos are killed primarily for their valuable horns, which are ground into powder for use, among other things, as a fever-reducing agent in traditional oriental medicines in East Asia and carved into dagger handles in the Middle East. However, there are some indications that the use of rhino horn as dagger handles may be coming to an end, as Yemenites are switching to antelope horn.
Consumer demand for and trade in the parts and derivatives of these species supply luxury markets as well as markets for cultural and medicinal needs. One of the most complex and far-reaching of thesedemands is for use in traditional medicines.
What is Traditional Chinese Medicine?
In Chinese Traditional Medicine, animal parts - known in East Asia as pu foods - are reputed to endow a man with the potency of the animal itself, or with the potency implied by the shape of the appendage. Traditional Chinese medicine uses these animal derivatives to prepare medications in two forms - as individually prepared prescriptions and as over-the-counter packaged medicines. Most of the latter medicines are manufactured in China and are sold in markets worldwide. However, it is important to emphasize that 95% of traditional medicines are made with herbs and contain no animal parts whatsoever.
China has an estimated 1,000 traditional manufacturers turning out 4,000 different products. They account for about half the drugs China consumes. Traditional Chinese medical practitioners and hospitals exist alongside those using Western medicine. The trade between the West and China is not all one way though, traditional Chinese medicine - such as accupuncture, herbal mixtures and other remedies - is gaining popularity in the United States and Europe. Western consumers more and more turn to ephedra for colds and ginseng for enervation.
What do the experts say?
Some experts are not holding much hope for a Viagra revolution, noting that the animals' parts are marketed for much more than aphrodisiacs. According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), only a "fringe culture" in Asia seeks tiger genitals and rhino horn as aphrodisiacs. Other animal body parts have a variety of uses in legitimate Chinese medicine, particularly tiger bone. They are used as cures for everything from arthritis to pimples. The threat the WWF is concerned about when it comes to rhinos and tigers is poaching to supply the medicinal market. Tiger bone is used to cure rheumatism, muscle pain and paralysis. Rhino horn is prescribed for delirium. The tough, fibrous material in rhino horns is also coveted by Yemenis as handles for exotic daggers, for example.
Also, a group that routinely monitors the worldwide trade in illicit animal parts, the Environmental News Service, sees little chance that even wide use of Viagra will reduce the demand for animal organs, because so much of the trade is not related to sex medicines. Another expert points out that Viagra - in order to be a savior for tigers and rhinos - has to fight tradition. "Traditional medicine is just that. It's just like trying to get people here in the United States to eat catfish on Thanksgiving," he said. "Secondly, would it even be available to these people? It's a relatively new drug and the expense is quite great."
Is Viagra too expensive for most Asian men?
The answer clearly is Yes. After all, one pill costs $8-10 in the United States - a lot of money for the overwhelming portion of Asia's population. However, it is important to remember that traditional remedies are very expensive as well. A bowl of tiger penis soup sells for $350 in the black market in Hong Kong, South Korea and Taiwan. For the small segment of the Asian population that can afford such expensive traditional remedies, Viagra should be comparably cheap. It is almost certain to prove more effective. At pharmacies in one city in China, the little blue anti-impotence pills have sold under the counter for as much as $36 a tablet, according to a Beijing newspaper.
How would Viagra compare to other Conservation Efforts?
A number of programs are in place to protect endangered species. Among them are efforts to guard the living spaces of tigers and rhinos, as well as captive breeding, artificial insemination and embryo transfer. Other programs attempt to educate the local population where the endangered species live and to reduce demand through publicity campaigns. Another effort is the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which is a global treaty that aims to regulate trade in threatened and endangered species. While the illegal trade in raw products of endangered species is an undisputed problem, conservationists have long debated the degree of threat posed by the trade in prepared medicines containing or claiming to contain protected and regulated species. But most conservationists believe that whether or not the medicines always contain these species, the advertising and promotion of such ingredients sustains consumer demand for them and perpetuates the conservation problem.
Why isn't trade in tiger and rhino parts interdicted?
Commercial trade of raw rhino horn and tiger bone and their derivative products is prohibited by CITES as well as by domestic legislation in several countries, including Canada, the United States, and China. In Canada and the United States, the burden of proving that those products actually contain the species listed rests with the government. According to the WWF, although seizures occur at the port of entry when products are occasionally intercepted, few, if any, prosecutions of those dealing in these medicines have taken place because current forensic techniques are as yet unable to detect many of the derivatives in these products. The offer for sale of these otherwise illegally imported medicines continues because of lack of a strong law enforcement deterrent and, presumably, lack of consumer awareness about the problem. Conservationists believe that the ongoing availability of these products in North America constitutes a violation of CITES and of domestic legislation, is a threat to the species concerned, and should be stopped by wildlife lawenforcement agencies. In conclusion, efforts to conserve endangered species have largely failed because the market forces driving the poaching remain in place. Indeed, the demand for these products has intensified because the Chinese economy and the number of wealthy consumers have grown in recent years. Reducing such demand may therefore be a more effective conservation measure and a less costly alternative.
Is there demand in Asia for Viagra?
Despite its high price, the demand by Asians for Viagra is considerable, if media reports are to be believed. Impotence has been estimated to affect half the men in Asia aged between 40 and 70. Reportedly, the tablets fetch $300 a piece in China's black market. Viagra pills smuggled into South Korea cost around $25 a tablet. There, Viagra is also popular with men who have no impotence problems. Pfizer's local office in Korea even had to release warning that "Viagra is not an aphrodisiac". Koreans smuggle Viagra disguised as vitamin pills and dietary supplements into the country. In one week, the Post Offices seized 40 Viagra bottles shipped in the mail from abroad. Customs officials only allow one bottle per tourist Even these limited imports are heavily taxed, and in addition, each tourist must sign a form saying they will not resell Viagra in the local market.
If the sales experience with Viagra in the United States and Europe is any guide, it is likely the new impotence- erasing pills will be an instant hit all over the region.
Has Viagra been approved in Asia?
So far, Viagra has been approved for sale only in Thailand, the Philippines and Singapore. It is not yet widely available or used in any Asian country. The Singapore Ministry of Health (MOH) approved the registration of Viagra tablets for treatment of impotence in men aged 18 and above in early November. However, Pfizer, the maker of Viagra, said the little blue pill will only start selling sometime between mid-December and January as it will have to alter the product packaging and produce information leaflets for patients and doctors as required by the ministry. The pill could rake in about $5 million a year in sales for Pfizer in Singapore. Viagra will only be available on a doctor's prescription. The initial approval is only valid for six months. Pfizer will have to seek permission for its sale again after that.
The pill has alreay gone on sale in the Philippines, but sales there have been rather disappointing so far. The pill is simply too expensive to have any appeal to a broader mass of consumers. Most Asian countries will probably join Thailand, the Philippines and Singapore in approving Viagra, possibly even by the end of 1998. However, the biggest Asian country, China, is not on that list, but may follow within a year or so.
Should Asian governments subsidize the use of Viagra?
While this might take some pressure of endangered species and could make many men (and women) very happy, it would almost certainly be too expensive for most Asian countries. Even rich developed countries cannot afford to have their public health care systems pay for Viagra. In the United States, there is concern that Viagra might become a major burden for public health programs, such as Medicaid. The Health and Human Services Department says the law requires Medicaid to pay for all drugs prescribed for medical reasons - and Viagra qualifies when prescribed properly by a doctor.
Some states have argued that Viagra could cost Medicaid, the state-federal health care program for the poor, a lot of money. According to them, preliminary estimates indicate that a nationwide mandate for coverage of Viagra through Medicaid would cost the states and the federal government more than $100 million each year. That is a lot when one considers that 90% of Medicaid beneficiaries are women and children. Many private insurers and HMOs also refuse to pay for Viagra. Similarly intense debates are raging in other rich industrialized countries such as Germany. In Great Britain, it has been estimated that state coverage of Viagra could eat up a quarter of all money spent on medicine - bankrupting the public health system. All this seem to indicate that it is beyond the means of most Asian nations to subsidize Viagra.
How was Viagra discovered?
This is actually a funny story. The research was not originally being done with impotence in mind. In 1985, researchers at Pfizer started looking for a class of chemicals with the potential for treating cardiovascular disease. They started out looking at hypertension, but that soon evolved into looking at angina, the syndrome that involves episodes of chest pain caused by poor blood flow to the heart muscle. In the discovery process, Pfizer made about 1,500 chemical compounds, and tested and screened them for over four years. In 1989, they found the chemical we now know as Viagra. Once Viagra had been identified and tested, researchers started clinical trials in the United Kingdom to treat angina, looking at safety and toleration of the drug.
In about 1992, results from Phase II trials in angina patients showed Viagra to be less efficacious than had been hoped. But then something unexpected happened: Men refused to give their samples back, so the researchers suspected they were onto something. Indeed, demand for the drug was so high that some research subjects camped out on researchers' doorsteps, or even broke into labs, to get more Viagra. It turned out that - as a side effect - Viagra gave erections to men who had long been suffering from impotence. Of course, Pfizer did not miss the great business opportunity this presented, and went full-speed ahead with testing Viagra as an anti-impotence pill.
What about side effects?
According to Pfizer, Viagra was well tolerated in clinical trials. Some men experienced side effects, including headaches, facial flushing, and upset stomach. These were generally mild to moderate in nature and went away in a short time. A small percentage of men (3%) reported mild and temporary visual effects, including color tinge, increased sensitivity to light, or blurred vision. Side effects generally have not caused patients to stop taking Viagra. Viagra is not for everyone. Viagra should not be taken by patients who use drugs known as nitrates, in any form, at any time. One of the most commonly used nitrates is nitroglycerin, which is frequently prescribed for angina (chest pain due to heart disease). Nitrates can lower blood pressure to unsafe levels if used with Viagra. The use of Viagra offers no protection against sexually transmitted diseases (including HIV - the virus that causes AIDS). Because sexual activity can be demanding on the heart, a doctor should be consulted about cardiovascular health before using any treatment for erectile dysfunction.
To find out more about Viagra's side effects, try this information provided by Pfizer's Viagra website or the FDA's site on Viagra .
II. Legal
Clusters
It will be very hard to measure whether Viagra will in fact reduce the demand for Tiger and Rhino parts.
III. Geographic
Clusters
a. Geographic Domain: Asia and Africa
b. Geographic Site: EASTASIA
c. Geographic Impact: China
IV. Trade Clusters
There are treaties (such as CITES) in effect to prevent trade in tiger and rhino products.
a. Directly Related to Product: YES, Viagra
b. Indirectly Related to Product: YES, Tiger bone and rhino horn
c. Not Related to Product: YES (Tiger and Rhino)
d. Related to Process: YES, Species Loss Land
Importer: China
V. Environment
Clusters
Name: Tiger and Rhino
Type:
Diversity:
IUCN Status: ENDANGered
VI. Other Factors
Culture is very important to this issue. Much of the demand for tiger and rhino products is directly linked to Chinese Traditional Medicine, which is deeply engrained in Chinese and other Asian cultures. Even if Viagra is approved soon and people can afford it, it remains to be seen whether the drug will appeal to Asians as an alternative to the remedies that were used for hundreds and thousands of years before.