The Chad-Cameroon Petroleum Development and Pipeline Project

(Graphics courtesy of CIA and WorldBank)

TED Case Studies
Number 650: November, 2001

Chad Oil Pipeline to Cameroon and Its Impacts, by Shane Hough

Last Updated December 12, 2001

IDENTIFICATION

1. The Issues (picture courtesy of the World Bank)

The main issues surrounding the Chad-Cameroon Petroleum Development and Pipeline project are the following:
Equity in the project for people in the affected regions
Use of the oil revenues with minimal corruption to bring sustainable development
Reduction of environmental risks like oil spills and surface water pollution
Human Rights abuses in the oil regions for political reasons
Protection of the Cameroon rainforests and the Bakola's way of life
Protection of the coastal offloading area in Cameroon
Global Warming and Climate Change
Map of proposed pipeline

2. Description

The Chad-Cameroon Petroleum Development and Pipeline Project promises to be an economic boon for both Chad and Cameroon. The project seeks to develop oil fields in Southern Chad and to build a pipeline over 1,000 km long from Chad to offshore oil-loading facilities on the Western coast of Cameroon. The project is being undertaken by ExxonMobil of the US (40%), Petronas of Malaysia (35%), and Chevron of the US (25%) with financing partly by the World Bank Group. The consortium will provide approximately 81% of the investment funding with 16% coming from market loans to Chad and Cameroon. The balance of investment in the project will come from equity payments by the government of Chad and Cameroon from World Bank loans. Construction and implementation of the plan began in September 2000 with possible construction beginning 2003. According to the World Bank, the project could result in nearly $2 billion in oil revenues for Chad and nearly $500 million for Cameroon (stemming from the transportation of the oil through the pipeline most of which runs through Cameroon and the offloading on Cameroon's coast) over the expected 25-30 year life of the oil fields. (WBOVER)

Although touted by the World Bank and the multi-national oil corporations as one of the best options for bringing development to both Chad and Cameroon, there are many worries on the part of environmentalists and human rights activists. Both Chad and Cameroon have poor human rights records. Even after the project was agreed to there have been several incidents in Chad concerning Presidential elections and the detaining of opposition leaders. There has also been violence in the Doba Basin region where the oil fields are located. Cameroon has a similar story, having made Transparency International's number one spot among corrupt nations in both 1998 and 1999. Human rights activists are concerned that an influx of oil revenue will only worsen the problem, leaving the people with even less equity in the government and in their region and no voice in preventing damage socially or environmentally.

On the environmental front, initial environmental assessments done were vague and lacked specific measures, for example in the area of oil spill incidents. The area through which the pipeline will run supports many tributaries to Lake Chad, which has been retreating over the last decade. Any oil spill of significance in the area could easily pollute Lake Chad and cause fish kill as well as loss of livelihood to those who depend on the lake. Pipeline breakage through deficient maintenance or through planned sabotage would have a detrimental effect on a large area. Lax government regulation will not help to prevent spillage. In Cameroon the pipeline will run through secluded sections of rainforest where the Bakola, "Pygmy", peoples live. They are highly dependent upon the forest, and any damage to it will be significant to them. There is also substantiated concern that increasing access to the forest will increase deforestation due to illegal logging. It will also affect biodiversity as more people utilize the forest for hunting or for gathering exotic flora and fauna for export.

The project is going forward as of today, but only tomorrow will tell us if Chad and Cameroon were prepared for such a project, and if the multinational oil companies were ready to be responsible for the impact they have. It will also be testimony to the development strategy undertaken by the World Bank. If the project proves socially and environmentally responsible then it will be the first of its kind in sub-Saharan Africa.

3. Related Cases

Environmental Assessment and Damage due to Petroleum projects:

AZERI - Environmental Aspects of Damage or Destruction of Azerbaijan Oil Pipeline (consortium led by British Petroleum)

BOLPIPE - Bolivian Gas Pipeline Construction Project

CASPOIL - Implications of Oil found in and around the Caspian Sea

COLOMOIL - Columbian Oil Exploration in the Andes

EXXON - Environmental Damage Due to the Exxon Valdez disaster

JAPANOIL - Environmental Damage Due to the Nadhodka disaster off Japan

KAZAKH - Oil Exploration in Kazakhstan

KOMI - Oil Spill near Komi Republic in Northern Russia

MALAYOIL - Malaysia Marine Oil Spill, 1997

TURKMEN - Transportation Issues surrounding Oil in Turkemistan

Cultural Degradation due to Petroleum projects:

OGONI - The Ogonis are the major ethnic group in the Nigerian Delta region where Shell Oil has been drilling for oil for several decades. Issues include environmental destruction and the removal of the indigenous people's ability to use the land to grow crops. There are also cases of harassment and killings carried out by the government in retaliation for Ogoni protests and sabotage threats to the oil facilities.

LEONE - Mining, predominantly diamond and gold mining, have resulted in deforestation, land degradation, and other environmental maladies.

4. Author and Date: Shane Hough, December 12, 2001

Last Updated December 12, 2001

LEGAL CLUSTER

5. Discourse and Status:

There are few legal decisions in international courts regarding oil corporations and developing countries. However, I would like to focus your attention on several issues for which there are legal instruments in the international community. These issues are as follows:

Forced Population Displacement from indigenous homelands in violation of the following Conventions:
- UN Human Rights Convention concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries (No. 169). This could take place both in Cameroon and Chad in order to exploit oil-producing regions or in order to construct the necessary pipeline to transport the oil.
- UN Human Rights Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Res. 2200A). Denial of means of subsistence to indigenous peoples by running them from the oil regions that is their home.
Oil Pollution Damage on the Cameroon coast during oil offloading and transporting in violation of the UN International Maritime Organization (IMO) Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC)

UN Human Rights Convention concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries (No. 169) states in Article 7, paragraph 2 and 3 that

"the improvement of the conditions of life and work and levels of health and education of the peoples concerned, with their participation and co-operation, shall be a matter of priority in plans for the overall economic development of areas they inhabit. Special projects for development of the areas in question shall also be designed as to promote such improvement. Governments shall ensure that, whenever appropriate, studies are carried out, in co-operation with the peoples concerned, to assess the social, spiritual, cultural and environmental impact on them of planned development activities. The results of these studies shall be considered as fundamental criteria for the implementation of these activities."

One such group that might be impacted is the Bakola people of Cameroon's Atlantic forest regions. They are highly dependent on the forest through which the planned pipeline will go. It may not seem like a big disruption of the environment and Bakola way of life to simply dig a trench and lay the piping, but the infrastructure and presence of outsiders required to maintain such a pipeline will have their effects (many negative) as well. The defending parties would be the multinational oil corporations (Chevron, Petronas, and ExxonMobil) most of which have headquarters in the U.S. In the event that proper planning isn't completed and the rights and future of the indigenous peoples are undermined, the oil corporations could be sued in an International Court or (maybe more effectively) in a U.S. Federal Court. Very specific indicators would be an increase in the number of schools or health facilities and representation in the governing body for the indigenous peoples, assuming that they agree to give up part of their land and way of life. There is the problem of stopping progress for the whole of the nation(s) because of the wishes of a few, but the government should take steps to avoid adverse effects on the indigenous population and to make sure to pay appropriate remuneration for land and resources used.

UN Human Rights Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Res. 2200A) states in Article 1, paragraph 2 that:

"All peoples may, for their own ends, freely dispose of their natural wealth and resources without prejudice to any obligations arising out of international economic co-operation, based upon the principle of mutual benefit, and international law. In no case may a people be deprived of its own means of subsistence."

The main issue at stake is the utilization of the oil resources, and the loss of "means of subsistence" without proper benefit or remuneration. This covenant looks at the issue of the multinational corporations' as well as the governments' responsibility to make sure that an appropriate part of the revenues from resources go to benefit the population. Where the previously mentioned convention addresses indigenous peoples and their specific areas, this covenant addresses all citizens of a country. It stabs at the ability of corrupt governments and greedy multinational corporations (all are not greedy, of course) to siphon out resources and leave little benefit in the wake to those left living there. I would hope that both corrupt government officials as well as multinational corporations could be prosecuted for flagrant violations of this covenant under international law both in an international court and in the court system of the country where the multinational corporations have their headquarters or a significant presence.

Oil Pollution Damage on the Cameroon Coast

After completion of this project petroleum from Chad's oilfields will be pumped to Cameroon's coast for offloading onto tanker ships. The possible environmental impact of oil spillage and illegal dumping of sump waste would have a devastating impact on those people who use the waters off the coast for their livelihood. The Maritime arm of the UN, the International Maritime Organization, has set up two different conventions to address this problem: the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (the MARPOL convention) and the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage.

The MARPOL convention might come into play during purposed or accidental discharge of oil while a tanker is within 50 miles of the Cameroon coast. The main issue is to protect the environment after the introduction of this new industry. The particular issue addressed with this international convention is the environmental safety of the offloading facilities on the coast of Cameroon. MARPOL also has restrictions on sewage and garbage from ships and can be prosecuted under the flag State law or the law of the State where the incident occurred.

The International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage extends the liability of oil dumping or spilling to ship operators. It holds operators accountable for any restricted dumping and requires that large ships carry insurance sufficient to cover the liability limit of one accident (currently a maximum of $18 million per accident for large tonnage ships).

6. Forum and Scope: World Bank and Bilateral

The aforementioned hypothetical cases would be debated in an international court of law or in the US federal court system since the major parties are US corporations. The cases would probably be class-action on the behalf of an entire ethnic group or citizens of a region and would be versus either the multinational corporations, the World Bank, the Government of Chad or Cameroon (as the case may be) or a mixture of these. There has been no legal precedent that could be applied to this case (that I am aware of at the present). There have been many oil spillage cases, for example the Exxon Valdez spill in Alaska, which could be sited.

7. Decision Breadth: People along the pipeline

Any legal decision would have the capacity to affect thousands of people all along the pipeline's planned route. Many different cultures and languages are present through the roughly 1,000 km path although involving only two countries. The mostly Bantu peoples of the Doba Basin in Southern Chad will be subject to the actual oil exploration and drilling involving many foreign workers (probably many Nigerians) bringing their own social and cultural problems with them to mix with those of the local communities. HIV/AIDS is also an issue in this context as the disease could make inroads into places where incidence is still relatively small. Environmental degradation and heavy use of fresh water could cause long-term effects on the mostly agrarian societies in the Doba Basin. Farther along into Cameroon we find the Bakola "Pygmy" people who inhabit Cameroon's rainforests in the North. The pipeline will require roads to provide maintenance increasing access to the interior of the forest and increasing things like illegal logging and export of exotic animals and plants. The Bakola may not be culturally prepared for the onslaught of outside ideas and the problems that come with them, not to mention their heavy dependence on an ecosystem that could be unbalanced by the intrusion of the pipeline. For the Bakola, this could be a life-and-death or at the least a very very significant life-changing project. Further along at the terminal point of the pipeline many Cameroonians in the Kribi area depend on the sea for their livelihood. An offloading terminal near the coast area with the accompanying ship traffic could cause widespread environmental degradation. The ships alone bring with them industrial waste and garbage, which is sometimes dumped overboard illegally. In the event of a massive oil spill thousands of people in the area would lose their livelihood, and hundreds of plant and animal species would be damaged.

8. Legal Standing: Treaty

Last Updated December 12, 2001

GEOGRAPHIC CLUSTER

Map of West Africa 9. Geographic Locations (picture courtesy of CIA)

a. Geographic Domain: Africa

b. Geographic Site: West Africa

c. Geographic Impact: Cameroon

10. Sub-National Factors: No

11. Type of Habitat: Temperate including marine and rainforest

Last Updated December 12, 2001

TRADE CLUSTER

12. Type of Measure: World Price of Brent Crude Oil

Although the type found in Chad would be considered Doba Crude Oil, the World Bank calculates returns based on Brent Crude Oil in this case probably due to the similarity in price and characteristics.

13. Direct v. Indirect Impacts:

The World Price of Brent Crude Oil has a definite direct affect on the project. If the world price drops below the oil consortium's risk tolerance such that potential political risks (like unrest or violence as has happened in other similar situations in Africa) outweigh potential profit incentives then the venture will fail. With Chad's current economic state it will continue to produce and sell oil as long as there is any profit to be made. However, the government of Chad will depend on the multinational corporations for the technical and infrastructural support to sell their oil. The political atmosphere in the region will be weighed against the profit to be made and that depends on the world price of brent crude oil. Other factors to consider are:

OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) - There may be some market influence that neighboring OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) countries, Nigeria and Libya, can exert due to their large reserves and entrenched export mechanisms. OPEC itself exerts a major influence over the world price of crude oil. OPEC countries produce about 40% of the world's oil and holds more than 77% of the world's proven oil reserves. As such a large unified force in the oil industry, OPEC greatly influences the price of oil products on the world market, and therefore the revenue that the Chad - Cameroon petroleum development and pipeline project brings to Chad and Cameroon. OPEC has built-in triggers to adjust production when the price per barrel goes above $28 or below $22 for a "basket" sampling of oil. OPEC should not prove to be an enemy of oil exploration in Chad because of the relatively small volume available. It is also in the best interest of OPEC countries to keep prices high on the world market, and consequently, high for Chad. Chad will probably not become a member of OPEC.

State of the US and World Economy - A US recession would make the venture less profitable because of a drop in oil prices globally. A US recession in the near future will also definitely affect the world economy, and a global recession might significantly affect the burgeoning pipeline project. This is a potentially serious problem in light of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 and potential of US recession followed by global recession, which will drive down world petroleum prices. Chad's small reserves would make Chad a marginal player in the petroleum market globally, although fewer restrictions environmentally and socially might counterbalance its small reserves and keep it a desirable place for the multinational corporations to continue extracting oil. Even though production will not start prior to 2003, the current state of the economy and its state in the short term will affect the attitude towards investment in risky operations on the part of the multinational corporations involved in this project.

14. Relation of Trade Measure to Environmental Impact

a. Directly Related to Product: Yes, Oil

b. Indirectly Related to Product: No

c. Not Related to Product: No

d. Related to Process: Yes, Habitat Loss

15. Trade Product Identification: Oil

16. Economic Data

Chad has an estimated 917 million barrels of crude oil that has yet to be tapped. Extraction and export of oil from Chad should begin by the end of 2003. At an average future price of $15.25 US per barrel, total revenues should be approximately $14 billion US over the next 25-30 yrs. Chad should see revenues of nearly $1.8 billion US and a dramatic improvement in physical infrastructure while Cameroon will realize about $540 million US from the charges arising from the transport of Chad's oil and the use of the pipeline to transport the oil to the Atlantic offloading dock.

With the World Bank's help the government of Chad has developed the "Strategy for the Management of the Petroleum Economy" (WB19343, pg. 95) which sets forth a plan to use the new revenues in a socially responsible way. This strategy is the basis for the Revenue Management Program, which was written into law by the parliament of Chad under President Idriss Deby on December 30, 1998. Act No. 001/PR/99 concerning Oil Revenues Management does seven basic things (WB19343, pg. 96) :

Allocates 10% of royalty and dividend revenues to the Future Generations Fund (to be held in trust)
Directs the balance of royalties and dividend revenues to special accounts to be held in local banks
Allocates 80% of these funds (of number 2) to five priority sectors in accordance with Parliamentary approved budgets - education, health and social services, rural development, infrastructure, and environment and water resources
Allocates 5% of royalties to the producing region
Allocates during the first five years 15% of royalties and dividends to financing government expenditures
Establishes the Government / civil society oversight committee
Sets up various auditing and reporting mechanisms including audits of the special accounts and the Future Generations Fund

In keeping with the spirit of the 1998 law President Deby was quoted in June 2000 as saying:

"We need to create higher institutions of learning so that our children and our brothers can stay home to learn what is needed instead of going to the four corners of the world to look for knowledge."(AFROL)

A bonus sum of US$25 million was paid (partial payment) to the government of Chad in August, 2000 as a signing bonus. President Deby had earlier affirmed that the money would be used in the spirit of the 1998 law, although the signing bonus wasn't covered by any World Bank agreement. In September, 2000 a World Bank / IMF mission sent to assess Chad's inclusion in debt relief under HIPC found that US$15 million of the bonus had already been paid out with US$4.5 million spent on military expenditures (30% of the US$15 million and 18% of the total US$25 million). The World Bank and IMF suggested to the government of Chad that the remaining funds be frozen and governmental oversight mechanisms be put in place to oversee the remaining funds. It went on to say that without the completion of these actions there would be no offer of debt relief under HIPC. In April 2001, the government completed these actions including the adoption of a budgetary amendment allocating 100% of the remaining bonus funds to priority spending by the Petroleum Revenues Oversight Committee. Chad received debt relief under HIPC in May, 2001 (BONUS, pp. 1-2).

17. Impact of Trade Restriction: Low

18. Industry Sector: Energy

19. Exporters and Importers: Chad-Cameroon and Mainly the Industrialized West

To get a general view of the petroleum industry worldwide and who imports / exports the most, the following two tables identify the major world players (see Table 1 - OPEC). Chad is expected to produce approximately 917 million barrels of oil over its 28 year lifespan resulting in less than 90,000 barrels per day on average, a very small player in the world petroleum market.

(Table 1)

World's Top 10 Producers of Oil and Oil Products (1,000 barrels per day)

Country	Oil Production	Crude Oil Exports	Exports of Refined Petroleum Products
U.S.	9,278	110	835
S. Arabia*	9,159	7,079	835
Russia	6,074	2,694	1,039
Iran*	3,721	2,512	205
Mexico	3,523	1,718	126
Venezuela*	3,329	2,144	759
China	3,198	313	135
Norway	3,152	2,883	270
UK	2,901	1,628	639
Canada	2,694	1,170	715

*OPEC country

World's Top 10 Importers of Oil and Oil Products (1,000 barrels per day)

Country	Crude Oil Imports	Imports of Refined Petroleum Products
U.S.	8,706	2,002
Japan	4,293	1,190
S. Korea	2,244	482
Germany	2,233	956
France	1,828	348
Italy	1,732	540
Spain	1,195	338
Netherlands	1,157	915
Singapore	1,038	554
UK	826	414

Chad is considered a very small producer on the world oil market.

Last Updated December 12, 2001

ENVIRONMENTAL CLUSTER

20. Environmental Problem Type: (picture courtesy of Amnesty USA)

Truck hauling Cameroon Logs According to the World Bank some environmental threats associated with this project are as follows (but not limited to) (WB19343, pg. 31):

Direct and Induced Impacts related to the development of the Doba Basin
Impacts on Biodiversity (associated with pipeline construction and maintenance)
Oil Spills (pollution of groundwater and surface waters shared by other nations)
Impacts on International Waterways (such as Lake Chad and regional rivers)

The World Bank has developed an environmental management plan for the project which includes (WB19343, pg. 131):

"(i) measures to mitigate biodiversity loss through environmental offsets, (ii) provisions for compensation and, where necessary, resettlement of affected people, (iii) programs to offset the indirect impacts of the project on local communities, including indigenous people, and (iv) an oil spill contingency plan as well as (v) all of the normal environmental precautions associated with oilfield development and with building and operating a pipeline and an offshore loading facility"

There are also environmental issues surrounding the offshore offloading facility on Cameroon's Atlantic coast. An oil spill there would severely affect the ability of people living in the area to fish and maintain their livelihood, not to mention the fouling of the surrounding beaches and loss of wildlife and flora.

Further Risks and Problems identified by Friends of the Earth International as possibly happening are as follows (FOEI, pp. 7-9):

Endangering of Food Security - the use of arable land in the Doba Basin (which is some of the richest land in Chad) for oil exploitation will reduce the land under cultivation and would pollute the region in the case of a major oil spill or pipeline break.
Diminishing of the Fresh Water Supply - fresh water scarcity is already a large problem in Chad. Oil well drilling will require massive amounts of water making the scarcity even worse. To meet the drilling demands, Exxon plans to drill wells far deeper than those used by local peoples possibly causing a drop in groundwater level and causing more shallow wells to dry up.
Destroying Forests and Fragile Ecosystems in Cameroon - The pipeline will traverse several major rivers (17 major river crossings) and rainforests (Atlantic Littoral forests) within Cameroon. The construction itself and the roads needed to maintain the pipeline could have a very serious negative impact on biodiversity and uncontrolled forest exploitation through illegal logging and hunting (such as rare plant and animal species export). Cameroon's estimated annual deforestation is one of the highest in the world at 0.6% (EDF, pg.10).
Greenhouse Gas Production and Climate Change - If greenhouse gas emissions produced by oil consumption is a cause of global warming then the exploitation of an estimated 900 million barrels of oil in Southern Chad will only cause more climate change. Most of this oil consumption will be by America and Europe with a very small part used by the population of Chad or Cameroon.

21. Name, Type, and Diversity of Species

Name: Many types of flora and fauna found in Cameroon's Atlantic Littoral forests will be affected, gorillas and chimpanzees major among them (EDF, pg.11). The forest itself could be affected by logging and overuse because of better access.

Type:

Diversity:

22. Resource Impact and Effect: High and Product

23. Urgency and Lifetime: Medium and 10 Years (although effects will be seen after construction starts in 2003)

24. Substitutes: Conservation and slower, more sustainable, use of the oil reserves and rerouting of the pipeline in the more sensitive forest areas of Cameroon.

Last Updated December 12, 2001

OTHER FACTORS

25. Culture:

Several social problems may occur as a result of the pipeline project. Some to consider are (FOEI, pp. 7-9):

Increased incidence of HIV/AIDS and other social problems - Though not strictly an environmental problem the development of the oil fields and construction of the pipeline will inevitably introduce new people into the region. Where HIV-infected workers interact with the local population, the level of HIV incidence could rise among people who are not educated in prevention or even the basics of HIV/AIDS. Other social problems like prostitution and increased alcohol consumption are reportedly already rising in the area.
Increased Corruption - In the African context oil development has almost always led to higher corruption rates (at least initially) and low equity on the part of the population. Cameroon topped the world's most corrupt nation list in 1998 and 1999. Oil development could help foster an even more corrupt atmosphere in both Chad and Cameroon reducing the people's equity in their own country and ability to have a voice in their government.
Impact on Cameroon's Forest Communities - The Bakola, "Pygmy", peoples as well as some Bantu peoples depend on the forest for their livelihood. They have few property rights now, and with increased access to the forest the likelihood of them losing even more of their land and livelihood is only increased.

26. Trans-Boundary Issues: No

27. Rights:

There are several issues involving rights to be considered. Human Rights and Property Rights are two such issues heavily involved in the Chad-Cameroon Pipeline project.

Human Rights in Chad and Cameroon

The 1999 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices authored by the US State Department summarized Chad's human rights practices as remaining poor, and there are continued "serious problems in many areas" including restrictions on citizens' right to change the government, extrajudicial killings, and other physical abuses carried out by the state security forces (army, gendarmerie, police, National and Nomadic Guard, Rapid Intervention Force, and the National Security Agency). The same report for Cameroon showed similarly poor human rights practices. (USDSChad & USDSCam)

Chad's 2001 Presidential Elections: In May, 2001, shortly after Presidential elections in which President Idris Deby was re-elected, Chadian security forces seized six opposition leaders, all of whom had contested the election results. One of these detainees was Yorongar Ngarleyji who was an outspoken opponent of the pipeline project prior to the elections. Yorongar had filed a request in April, 2001 with the World Bank's Independent Inspection Panel to investigate claims that deficiencies in the pipeline project design had and would lead to damage to residents and the environment in the project area. According to Amnesty International Chadian security forces have killed more than 200 unarmed civilians in the Doba oil region. No investigations into the killings have taken place. (AMNUSA)

28. Relevant Literature

Acronyms in Red are Parenthetical Reference Codes and are used throughout the text to refer to the following literary and web sources.

(AFROL)"Chad-Cameroon Pipeline Finally Under Closer Supervision" - AFROL News. Available at http://afrol.com/ms_index.htm

(AMNUSA)"Chad Cracks Down on Dissent" - Amnesty International USA. Available at http://www.amnestyusa.org/justearth/countries/chad-cameroon2.html

(BONUS)"Note on the Use of the Petroleum Bonus" - World Bank Group; June, 2001.

(DEV)"Declaration on the Right to Development" - UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR). Available at http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/74.htm; adopted December, 1986.

(EDF)"The Chad Cameroon Oil and Pipeline Project: Putting People and the Environment at Risk" - Environmental Defense Fund, USA. Available at http://www.environmentaldefense.org/pubs/Reports/ChadCameroon/pipeline.pdf; Sept, 1999.

(EIA)"Chad Country Analysis Brief" - Energy Information Administration, US Department of Energy. Available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/chad.html; Last updated April 3, 2001.

(ESSO)"EssoChad Executive Summary and Update" - ESSO. Available at http://www.esso.com/eaff/essochad/documentation/summary/1.html;

(FOEI)"Broken Promises - The Chad Cameroon Oil and Pipeline Project; Profit at Any Cost?" - Friends of the Earth International. Available at http://www.foei.org/; June, 2001.

(INDIG)"Convention (No. 169) concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries" - UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR). Available at http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/62.htm; adopted June, 1989; entry into force Sept 5, 1991.

(OPEC)"OPEC Fact Sheet" - Energy Information Administration, US Department of Energy. Available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/opec.html; Last updated Sept. 6, 2001.

(Statement)"Statement to the European Parliament's Development Committee" - World Bank Group; June 21, 2001.

(USDSCam)"1999 Human Rights Reports - Cameroon" - US Department of State. Available at http://www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/1999_hrp_report/; February 25, 2000.

(USDSChad)"1999 Human Rights Reports - Chad" - US Department of State. Available at http://www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/1999_hrp_report/; February 25, 2000.

(WBOVER)"Project Overview" - World Bank Group. Available at http://www.worldbank.org/afr/ccproj/project/pro_overview.htm; Last updated July 18, 2001.

(WB19343)"Project Appraisal Document - 19343 AFR" - World Bank Group. Available at http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2000/10/21/000094946_00102111244720/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf

"International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights" - UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR). Available at http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/a_cescr.htm; adopted Dec, 1966; entry into force Jan 3, 1976.

"International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC), 1969" - UN International Maritime Organization (IMO). Available at http://www.imo.org/Conventions/mainframe.asp?topic_id=256&doc_id=660

"International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78)" - UN International Maritime Organization (IMO). Available at http://www.imo.org/Conventions/contents.asp?doc_id=678&topic_id=258

"Universal Declaration of Human Rights" - UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR). Available at http://www.unhchr.ch/udhr/lang/eng.htm; adopted June, 1989; entry into force Sept 5, 1991.

Last Updated December 12, 2001

Mandala Home	Trade Environment Database	Inventory of Conflict and Environment	Global Classroom
Mandala Home	Etown	Environment, Statistics and Policy	Site Map