I. Identification

1. The Issue 

The purpose of our case study is to determine the degree of influence that export-oriented development has upon the forests of Thailand.  It is important to discuss this issue knowing that between 1976 and 1987, Thailand is estimated to have lost 28% of its forest cover at an alarming rate of 3.15% annually (Vajpeyi 138).  To explore the reasons for this occurrence,  we must investigate Thailand’s environment, geography, trade, culture, and legal issues.  Pertaining specifically to legal issues, we have found that an export-oriented mindset has influenced the forests in that the government has adopted forest management policies and plans that favor export-oriented development.

2. Description

Trade Filter Description:  Thailand has shifted its export orientation from agricultural products towards manufacturing.  Metal manufacturing, as a general term, is the greatest source of foreign trade for Thailand.  As well, both the manufacturing of textiles for apparel exports and the food and beverage market thrive in Thailand.  And while wood and paper products only make up about 2% of exported commodities, the forests are still a primary victim of the export centered economy.  The underlying question is why deforestation has been so great in Thailand in the past, and why it is still a costly dilemma today.

Metal manufactured products collectively represent nearly half of all exports for Thailand.  Recognizing this, it becomes clear that logging for wood is not the greatest culprit linked to Thailand's ongoing deforestation problem, but subtly implies that it is responsible for past damage.  Knowing that the logging ban in 1989 has not really diminished the problem of  deforestation, clearly suggests that the culprit is probably the export oriented economy.  For example, more resources need to be extracted out of the country, while simultaneously, more land is needed to meet the demands of the export oriented economy.  Among the other problems the export oriented economy creates is the constant pollution of the air and water; this negative product of industrial complexes directly causes many deaths in Bangkok annually and countless  indirect problems as well.  

Like the metal manufacturing industry, the textile processing industry (which is responsible for nearly 11% of the export economy) greatly inhibits forest growth and minimizes the total area of the forests.  When a country becomes export oriented like Thailand, their means for achieving it only can be realized by an increased dependence on technology and industry.  Hence, factories, processing plants, and exploitation of resources become more common.  Moreover, the more industrial a society becomes the larger urban centers become.  Bangkok is the largest metropolis in Thailand, and it is not difficult to realize that it is situated near highly deforested areas.  It constitutes roughly 35% of the manufacturing employment, produces 42% of the GDP, and harbors about 15% of Thailand's booming population.  When Thailand increases its production of metal manufactured items to export, they subsequently need both more technological advanced buildings and urban (and suburban) housing to support it.  Likewise, the textile industry is founded on the fact that the raw materials come from agricultural land to predominantly grow cotton which takes up large amounts of space.  Yet not only do the agricultural lands take up space, but the textile industry processing plants also take up additional land thus degrading natural resources. 

There are virtually no environmental restrictions on manufacturing plants in Thailand, and there are actually tax refunds for exports.  Competition with other nearby Asian countries, such as China, offers the greatest threat to an expanding economy for Thailand.  In recent years China has even forced Thailand into a recession of economic growth.  This poses a problem for Thailand and is perhaps why environmental regulations remained lax over the past 30 years.  In this way, trade tendencies and mechanisms motivated by both Thailand’s economy and its rapid urbanization process are related to environment at the primary expense of the forests.

Geographical Description:  The geography of Thailand is pertinent to understanding the geographic, legal, trade, and environmental clusters of this TED case.  Located in Southeastern Asia, Thailand boasts three different seasons: hot, cool (by tropical standards), and rainy.  Thailand is classified as a tropical rainy forest and savanna.  Thailand’s geography is important to trade because its fertile land produces agricultural products which are used in exportation.  Northern Thailand is very mountainous and has cool weather which draws many tourists to the region.  As a result, the Thai government bases much of its export-oriented development on tourism.

Environmental Description:  Forests surrounding Bangkok are disappearing due to the city’s export oriented development.  With the destruction of the forest comes the destruction of species habitat.  Some forest is replaced with housing and factories.  It is also replaced by cropland to feed the growing population and to export. There are three forest types that have been degraded:  the Chao Phraya Freshwater Swamp Forests, the Chao Phraya Lowland Moist Deciduous Forests, and the Indochina Mangroves.  Each of these forests contains high biodiversity and two have endemic species.  Bangkok's urban development causes air and water pollution, as well.  Because the city is growing so fast, forest loss and pollution need to be curbed immediately.  This can be achieved through better urban planning, regulation of industries and logging companies, switching to lead-free gasoline, and the promotion of Voluntary Organizations.

Cultural Description:  Conflicts between the Thai government and the various local hill tribes often arise from cultural differences.  The Thai government is solely concerned with is export-oriented development.  As long as the tourist industry makes money, the Thai government does not mind exploiting both its environment and its hill tribes.

Legal Description:  We see a few main issues leading to the legal standing of this issue of export-oriented development and its influence upon the forests of Thailand.  In particular, we note the low degree of consensus between the government and the local people regarding forest management and the ways in which this, along with issues such as corrupt government action, has led to ineffective legislation.  We find a discrepancy between written law and that which is actually practiced.  Recognizing this discrepancy, bills have been enacted, constitutional provisions have been made, and international conventions have been signed, yet the issue remains unresolved.

Human Rights Description:  (For the United Nation's Declaration of Human Rights, visit http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html) The Thai government violates the hill tribes’ human rights because it treats them like second-class citizens.  Therefore, it does not hesitate to seize their land for its own agendas or to demean the Buddhist religion.  The government even encourages the hill tribes to grow cash crops and rice for exportation, although that is frequently detrimental to the environment.  The hill tribes often have their land taken by the government without compensation.  This is a violation of their human rights because all people should be able to have their own land or receive compensation from the government if it is taken away.

3. Related Cases

Malawi Tobacco Industry & the Environment

Deforestation

Philippine Deforestation

Deforestation in Indonesia & and the Orangutan Population

4. Author and Date:  Kevin Shaughnessy, Kelly Meyer, Angie Arellano, Robin Jones:  December 4th, 2003.

II. Legal Clusters

5. Discourse and Status: 

DIS:

Our primary issue is deforestation in Thailand due to export-oriented development.  In light of this issue, we find several pertinent legal issues that together create the problem, including misuse of land due to an export-oriented mentality, urban/anti-rural mentality and discrimination, countered by discontent and demonstrations of the local/rural people.

 Government efforts to manage the forests have been repeatedly proven ineffective due to lack of people’s participation, as well as to corrupt government officials.  The corruption of the government plays a particularly large role in the misuse and wrongful distribution of land.  Despite written government statutes to distribute land to the landless, the wealthy still manage to acquire the land for themselves, with the connivance of corrupt officials.  So we find misuse of land in the form of wrongful distribution, but more importantly to our case, we find misuse of land due to Thailand’s trend toward commercialization and modernization, particularly concerning the logging industry.  Consequently we find a low level of consensus regarding how to approach this issue of deforestation due to export-oriented development. 

Two distinct perspectives prevail—that of the government and the local people—and from these two sides we find a difference of motives in managing the forests.  The government tends to value export-oriented development in that it emphasizes forest management in an effort to meet national and international demands for timber and other forest products.  Despite certain constitutional provisions, which will be discussed later, the government tends to view the local people as having no legal role in establishing and planning forest management, and the government has repeatedly denied claims of local people regarding their rights to manage the forests.  Yet, at the same time, the government still recognizes the need for the people to participate.  It is almost as if the government wants to treat the local people as puppets.  The following account illustrates the conflict between the government and the local people:

"About five years ago, the Royal Forestry Department (RFD) declared a national park that enclosed Pati Punu's village.  Ever since, Pati Punu lived in fear and uncertainty over his future and that of his children.  Forestry officials randomly stomped over the swidden rice fields, not considering that their deliberate destruction of crops could mean starvation for many families; threats of arrest and resettlement became a daily nightmare; and people were often jailed when they cut down trees for house building or rice growing.  In March 1997, Pati Punu traveled to Bangkok to join in the demonstrations of hundreds of other ethnic people from the northern mountains whose homes and swiddens were taken over by the state in the name of nature conservation.  Pati Punu hoped that dialogue with the phu yai, the powerful state authorities, would make them sympathise and understand that the Karen people had lived and protected the forests for hundreds of years even before the phrase "protected area" had come into existence, and there was nowhere else for the Karen to go if they were deprived of their land.  But negotiations between the hill people's representatives and the phu yai collapsed.  The Deputy Minister of Agriculture declared that all the people living in upland watershed areas must opphayop ("resettle"), a word dreaded by forest-dwelling communities.  On the way back to his homeland in the northern mountains, his heart heavy with grief, Pati Punu threw himself out of the train and died. [...] Pati Punu had chosen the only path he had in his struggle for autonomy; the path that took away his life, but allowed him to remain Karen in soul and spirit" (Luangarasami 1).

 For the local groups, the forest is a provider of necessities—medicine, food, water, and firewood—necessities that they manage in order to sustain their livelihood.  The people do not participate in government resource-management programs because they usually have had little to no input into the planning process, despite written law guaranteeing this right, and also because they have even found themselves indebted to financial institutions as an outcome of these forest management schemes.  Added to this, the people are not properly informed about the government’s policies and implementation plans for forest management. 

Stage:  INPROG

Hindering the completion of the case, we find a clear discrepancy between written law and that which is practiced.  It appears that the government adopts an unofficial doctrine of appeasement toward the local people and grassroots organizations in which they write nice sounding laws, but fail to follow through.  We also find that the completion of the case is hindered largely due to corrupt officials.

6. Forum and Scope: 

Forum:  Thailand

Scope:  UNILAT

7. Decision Breadth:

Number of Parties Affected:  1 (Thailand) plus minor effects felt perhaps by countries affected by Thailand’s logging industry (i.e. Myanmar, Laos)

8. Legal Standing:

Standing:  LAW, NGO, TREATY 

LAW

Thailand’s forestry ministries:

In 2002, a new reform split forest management between two ministries—the Agriculture and Cooperatives Ministry and the Natural Resources and Environment Ministry.  Under this new legislation, the Agriculture Ministry is responsible for the economic forest,” while the Natural Resources and Environment Ministry is responsible for the national parks and protected forests.  This reflects the conflict between forest use for commercial purposes and exportation, and forest use for preservation.   (Samabuddhi 1)

Constitutional provisions that are supposed to ensure people's participation in natural resource management:

This current Constitution of 1997, in theory, gives the local people and organizations certain seemingly undeniable rights and responsibilities regarding the management of forests and resources.  As we have seen, these provisions give rights to the people to receive information and the right to share ideas.  The constitution changed the role of the government from having a controlling and managing position, to promotion and encouragement of people’s participation. 

Community Forestry Bill

In addition to the relevant Constitutional provisions, legislation plans have been passed, such as the Community Forestry Bill which is currently being considered.  “More than ten years of negotiations between government officials, local community groups and non-governmental organizations have led to a draft community forest bill which would be Thailand’s first legislation recognizing the legal status of communities living in and around Thailand’s National Forest Reserves to use, manage and protect their forests” (Rajesh 1).  While the bill has finally made its way to Thailand’s legislative bodies within the past couple of years, amendments and considerations are still underway.

National Economic and Social Development Plans (NESDPs) and NGO involvement

Thailand's steps to implement this legislation are seen in the string of NESDPs that have outlined forest management in the spirit of the Constitution.  However, while these plans have been effective to some extent, they have not been as effective as they have had the potential to be.  Rather, the government tends to stick to its own agenda.  Thailand has also taken practical steps to improve this forestry situation, by making use of the United Nation’s FAO guidelines of forest management and participating in the Inter-governmental Forum on Forestry.

TREATY

Thailand participates in the International Tropical Timber Organization.

International Affiliations

Thailand attends the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD), United Nation’s Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization’s Programme on Man and the Biosphere (UNESCO-MAB), and World Heritage.

III. Geographic Clusters

9. Geographic Locations

a. Geographic Domain: Asia

b. Geographic Site: East Asia

c. Geographic Impact: Northern Thailand

10. Sub-National Factors:

Sub-state: Yes+ Royal Forest Department, Land Department officials, Tourism Authority of Thailand

11. Type of Habitat:

Habitat Type: #1 Tropical Rainy Forest and Savanna (Tropical)

IV. Trade Clusters

12. Type of Measure:  [IMTAX ], [REGBAN], and [SUBSIDY]

Both subsidies for specific crops (usually those cash crops most beneficial to the export market such as: rice and the food/beverage crops, rubber, and those crops mentioned below) and tax refunds for exports are provided by the Thai government to bolster product specification.  By only manufacturing those products most beneficial to Thailand's export , the industries become more efficient in production; they do not bother producing commodities that will not maximize their export profit. 

The regulatory ban is linked to the logging industry.  Only specific companies with permits are allowed to log.  However, the enforcement of the ban is marginal and many violations of this rule occur routinely.  This increases the deforestation rate.

13. Direct v. Indirect Impacts: Indirect [IND]

14. Relation of Trade Measure to Environmental Impact

a. Directly Related to Product: Yes.  The textile industry deals with rubber, cotton, and silk resources which are grown on plantations.  Rice and tobacco make up a large portion of the "food and beverage" economy as well, and thus increase the amount of cultivated land needed for successful market yields.   Simply stated, the "commodity crop boom has ... been a powerful new engine of destruction of the Korat Plateau woodlands," ( Bello 145).  It is important to note that such instances are becoming more and more common in areas surrounding Bangkok. 

The metal manufacturing industries, which eventually market goods like transportation equipment and motor vehicles, also need sufficient land.  To compound  the environmental destruction, all these industries need factories (processing plants) to make their commodity marketable.  This export oriented development is furthered by a greater urbanization, highlighted by an expansive transportation network and an industrial layout. 

b. Indirectly Related to Product:  Yes.  Manufacturing of metals leads to building up of city metropolises, which need both land and building materials.  Consequently, since the mining of metallic resources needed for the production of machinery is not a great sector of the economy, it implies that Thailand may import some of the resources needed.  This fact is costly to their economy. 

Similarly, the transformation of agricultural land into real estate used by firms for private economically motivated goals is becoming an increasing problem.  Again this is likely to occur closer to Bangkok, but sooner than later this land will be used up.  Technological plants will be needed, and the forest land will need to be developed by industry. This is not an exaggeration by any means as forests have been and continue to be cleared in the process.  Even more important to recognize is that when more factories are built, more agriculture laborers move to cities to support them, thereby abandoning their lifestyle and lands.  The shift from a rural to urban economy reduces the traditional role of cultivation for subsistence.  It is this agricultural void that may become a problem for Thailand, which in the long-run, may have to import food products.  In other words, the ultimate goal of the Thai government  is to decentralize the industry and expand out into the rural countryside at any cost to their own labor specification.

c. Not Related to Product: No. 

d. Related to Process:   Yes.  The process of metal manufacturing/processing of raw materials implies that industrial complexes need to be built.  When these complexes are built, more degradation and deforestation is likely to occur on the outskirts of the urban centers. 

Similarly, pollution is a great problem caused by the dramatic increase in factories in Bangkok.  For instance, inadvertent lead intake was discovered to have caused the death of 400 people a year in Bangkok and 10,152 factories were the key polluters. (Bello 120).  Another instance of pollution stems from paper companies dumping waste in rivers in the area surrounding Bangkok.  These direct and careless examples of polluting rivers and water sources render a large portion of marketable fish and drinking water contaminated. The industrial pollutants remain unchecked, because in Thailand, there are no regulatory measures for standards of dioxin ( Bello 122).  This continues to be a tremendous problem for Northern Thailand as it shifts towards an export oriented economy and seeks increased technological innovation.  Likewise, the enforcement of anti-pollution law regulation is weak or even lacking to begin with.  It can be said that "industrialization [in Thailand] is outrunning the environmental regulatory framework" (Bello 145).  Hence, when the forests become more accessible to the general public and the government, it is more susceptible to exploitation. 

And finally, the absence of effective zoning laws compounds the dilemma further.  Debates over land management and resource efficiency, inadvertent deaths, and a lower standard of living will all continue to accompany the rapid expansion in Thailand if these problems are not attended to quickly and effectively.  Currently, the situation is clearly volatile and chaotic.

15. Trade Product Identification:  Predominantly textile and metal manufacturing products. 

Among the resources and products most exported are the following:  rubber products, (Source: rubber tree);  textile yarn/fabrics products for clothing/apparel, (Source: cotton plantations and silk); food and beverages, (Source: mainly rice plantations); tobacco, leather products, motor vehicles, and transportation equipment.

Employment from manufacturing: >7.9% of nation's population with 25.8% of those employed in textile related firms.

17. Degree of Competitive Impact:  China is Thailand's major market competition and has caused decreased economic growth for Thailand in recent years.  Thailand is in the process of moving out of their economic recession of the 1990's with increased foreign direct investment from Japan and the US leading the way.  Note that for many years these countries have also been strong proponents of strengthening Thailand's economy through export promotion.   

18. Industry Sector:

Both non-durable (N): [FOOD], [TOBAC], and  [TEXT];

And durable manufacturing (D): [EMACH], [NEMACH], and  [PRIMET]

19. Exporters and Importers: 

Case Exporter: Thailand  

Case Importer: Primarily the US but also the EU and ASEAN countries

Leading Importers of Thailand's goods in (US $): 13,248.2 million (US); 10,519.5 million (European Union);  9,958.7 million (Japan); 3,299.7 million (China); 2,722.8 million (Malaysia); and 1,364.0 million (Indonesia).

V. Environment Clusters

20. Environmental Problem Type: DEFORestation and HABITat Loss, Air Pollution (POLA) and Freshwater Waste POLF

The export oriented development of Bangkok has caused the loss of all the different forest types in the surrounding area.  These forests are home to many species; with the destruction of the forests comes the destruction of their habitat.  This type of development can affect forests in several ways.  Some parts of the forest are cleared simply to make room for the expanding city and its growing population.  Other parts are converted to agricultural land to feed this population, and to fuel the economy through the exporting of crops.  Logging companies cut down forests to make room for industries that export other goods. The three types of forests that have been affected are the Chao Phraya Freshwater Swamp Forests, the Chao Phraya Lowland Moist Deciduous Forests, and Thailand’s portion of the Indochina Mangroves.

The most severe destruction has been done to the Chao Phraya Freshwater Swamp Forests.  Much of the existing forest has completely disappeared, and “virtually none of the original vegetation remains” (National Geographic).  Bangkok’s establishment created a need for more agricultural land, and much of the swamp was converted to paddy land.  This conversion was accelerated when “the export of rice on a significant scale began” (Wikramanayake 408).  Other land has been “occupied by sugar cane, bananas, and fruit orchards” (409).  To fuel the economy further, some land has been converted to “more profitable and destructive agriculture” such as vegetables (409).  Land is also used for “housing estates and factories” which “takes place without reference to any zoning plan” (409).  The promotion of industrialization by the Industrial Estates Authority of Thailand also takes place without any consideration of a zoning plan or environmental effects (409).

Another type of forest that has been affected is the Chao Phraya Lowland Moist Deciduous Forests.  This forest has also been cleared for agricultural land, to grow “tapioca and sugar cane” (Wikramanayake 418).  Urbanization has contributed to further forest loss with “new roads and the spread of industry and new housing from Bangkok” (419).  A new Bangkok International Airport is being planned, which will put additional stress on the land (419). 

The third type of forest affected is the Indochina Mangroves.  Mangrove forests are found in the delta of the Chao Phraya River.  The majority of the mangroves are found in Vietnam, Cambodia, and other regions of Thailand, but Bangkok still contributes to their destruction.  As the city’s population increases, more land is used for “residences and government buildings” (Durongdej 3).  Trees have been illegally cut down for fuel, due to the “high demand on charcoal in both rural and urban markets” (3).

In addition there is also the problem of air and water pollution within the city.  The air quality is poor due to emissions from cars and industries.  Water quality suffers from human waste being drained into the waterways and lack of proper garbage disposal.  (Lo 3-4).

21. Name, Type, and Diversity of Species 

Because such a wide area is affected by development, several important species are affected as well.  Each forest type has its own biodiversity features and species endemic to the area.

 Chao Phraya Freshwater Swamp Forests

Biodiversity

-contains most of remaining colonies of large waterbirds:  painted stork (Mycteria leucocephala), spot-billed pelican (Pelecanus philippensis), black-headed ibis (Threskiornis melanocephalus)

-supports largest known concentration of the globally near-threatened Asian openbill (Anastomus oscitans)

-contains mammals of conservation significance:  tiger (Panthera tigris), elephant (Elephas maximus), Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus)

Endemism

Endemic and Near-Endemic Mammal Species

An asterisk signifies that the species' range is limited to this ecoregion.

Endemic and Near-Endemic Bird Species

(Wikramanayake 408-409)

 Chao Phraya Lowland Moist Deciduous Forests   

Biodiversity

-larger mammals:  banteng, pileated gibbon

-has freshwater crocodiles (Crocodylus siamensis)

-contains birds:  Siamese fireback (Lophura diardi), Indochinese magpie (Cissa hypoleuca), scaly-crowned babbler (Malacopteron cinereum)

-contains larger birds:  the last remaining woolly-necked storks (Ciconia episcopus) in Thailand, pompadour pigeon (Treron pompadora), green imperial pigeon (Ducula aenea)

-supports serow (Capricornis sumatrensis), silver pheasant (L. nycthemera)

Endemism

Endemic and Near-Endemic Mammal Species.

An asterisk signifies that the species' range is limited to this ecoregion.

(Wikramanayake 418-419)

Indochina Mangroves

Biodiversity

-contains species:  tiger (Panthera tigris), tapir (Tapirus indicus), siamang (Hylobates syndactylus)

-contains endangered waterbirds:  lesser adjutant (Leptoptilos javanicus), Storm’s stork (Ciconia stormi), white-winged wood duck (Cairina scutulata), spot-billed pelican (Pelicanus philippensis)

-contains reptiles of conservation significance:  monitor lizard (Varanus salvator), false gavial (Tomistoma schlegeli), estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus)

Endemism

No species endemic to the area

(Wikramanayake 435)

22. Resource Impact and Effect:  HIGH and SCALE

Thailand is growing quickly industrially and in population.  A 2000 census showed that Thailand’s population was growing by 1.1% annually (U.S. Census Bureau).  Over the recent years, the Gross Domestic Product has risen by 11% per year on average (Sasaki 2).The country's export-oriented development affects the environment negatively in a variety ways.  Deforestation means the loss of habitat for many endangered and endemic species.  In addition, the air is polluted to the point of being rated “dangerous;” the air quality index in Bangkok is 300, while the highest acceptable rate is only 100 (7).  Waterways are plagued with “50% of the city’s 2,500 tons of garbage” each day (8).    These problems arise from too many people and not enough resources.

23. Urgency and Lifetime:  MEDium and 5 and 10 years

The conservation status of the Chao Phraya Freshwater Swamp Forests is critical while the status of the other two forest types is endangered (Wikramanayake 407, 418, 435).  The Freshwater Swamp Forests have are almost completely destroyed; if no action is taken they will be gone in the next 5 years.  However the Lowland Moist Deciduous Forests are contiguous with surrounding protected areas, and could last up to 10 years without outside help.   Fragments of mangrove forests still survive, but the mangrove habitats are extremely sensitive and need immediate attention; otherwise, it is probable they will also disappear in 5 years.

24. Substitutes: Urban planning, regulation of industry, LIKE (switch to lead-free gasoline), and use of private Voluntary Organizations

To save the forests, Thailand’s government needs better zoning plans to assist with decentralization of economic growth.  The government should more effectively regulate where and how often logging companies cut trees.  Voluntary Organizations that work on a national level (NGOs) should seek private ownership of endangered forest areas, thus "establish[ing] a functioning network of small wetland nature reserves"   (Wikramanayake 409).  To control air pollution the government can set regulations for industries’ pollution emissions (Lo 6).  The government has also planned to use “lead-free gasoline in all new cars” instead of regular gasoline (5).    Water pollution can be cut down by promoting Community-Based Organizations (CBOs) to aid in waste management systems.  The city of Madras has been successful in this endeavor (Tropp 140). 

VI. Other Factors

25. Culture:  Yes.

The conflicts that exist between the Thai government and various local hilltribes of Northern Thailand are often based on cultural differences.  Oftentimes these cultural differences significantly influence the initiation of conflicts and how the government attempts to solve the problem.  For example, the government’s capitalistic interest in tourism has led to conflicts with local hilltribes regarding the sacred Buddhist mountain, Doi Suthep.  Doi Suthep is found in Northern Thailand’s hilly area which has become a “promised land” for tourism.  One researcher declares that due to this area’s relatively cool temperature and mountainous terrain, “some people have named it ‘Thailand’s Switzerland’ and promoted the province as a tourist destination” (Climate, Deforestation).

Although Doi Suthep is “the most religiously revered mountain in the North,” a Bangkok company and the Tourism Authority of Thailand have proposed to build a cable car to the top of the mountain.  This is yet another instance that illustrates the Thai government’s sole interest in its export-oriented development through its tourist industry.  The cable car project conflicts with the local Buddhist hilltribes due to their belief that the mountain’s sanctity will be destroyed if a cable car is allowed to transport tourists to the Buddhist temple.  These Northerners around Chiang Mai are usually non-confrontational, but they have challenged the Doi Suthep Cable Car project.  Local monks have led peaceful yet powerful protests against the project and even obtained more than 20,000 signatures on various petitions that were sent to Thailand’s prime minister, authorities, and cabinet members.

The government will help finance forest conservation, despite the fact that it will have to destroy parts of the forest in order to build the cable car.  The government declares that the forest’s destruction is insignificant since “no significant wildlife [exists] on Doi Suthep” exists (Ramitanondh 42).  One geographer notes that tourism “is not intended to protect the forest, but simply to generate higher returns” than the hilltribes’ rural-based economy (Delang 484).  Even the Royal Forest Department supports the Doi Suthep Cable Car project, although it is this department’s duty to preserve Doi Suthep as a national park.  Therefore, the Thai elite encourages its export-oriented development through tourism despite the fact that the Buddhist hilltribes’ revered mountain might lose its sanctity as well as its habitat.  The cultural differences between the Thai government and the local hilltribes are not just limited to religion but also include the environment. 

26. Trans-Boundary Issues: No

27. Human Rights: Yes.

The Thai government and the Royal Forestry Department (RFD) violate the human rights of hilltribes not only by profiting from tourism to sacred Buddhist sites but also by keeping the tribes in an impoverished, uneducated condition.  The Thai government and the RFD do not teach the hilltribes effective farming techniques, and the government has frequently encouraged the hilltribes to grow cash crops and rice for exportation.  These crops bring in more money to Thailand than if the tribes just lived off their land, but are often detrimental to the environment.  Cash crops, such as cabbage, require lots of pesticides which contaminate streams.  A rice-growing program was even encouraged by the Thai government in order to increase profits, although more land had to be cleared for the paddies and became unusable for farming.  The hilltribes ultimately lose their land to the government and are usually not reimbursed for their land.  The Thai government treats some of the hilltribes as second class citizens, ignoring the fact that some, such as the Hmong, have lived in the Thai lowlands longer than the Thais have lived there.  Clearly, the local hilltribes’ human rights are violated when their land is taken from them without compensation in order to increase Thailand’s export-oriented development via agricultural products.

28. Relevant Literature

Bello, Walden, Cunningham, Shea and Keng Poh, Li. eds.,  A Siamese Tragedy, New York: Zed Books Ltd., 1998.

Climate.  Introducing Thailand.  9-21-03. http://www.thaioregon.com/thailand/climate.htm.

“Country Profile: Thailand.”  Viewed on November 8^th, 2003.  http://popplanet.org/PopPlanet/issue.cfm?countryid=9&iid=6. 

Delang, Claudio.  1988.  Deforestation in Northern Thailand; The Result of Hmong Farming.

Durongdej, Sripen.  “Land Use Changes in Coastal Areas of Thailand.”  URL:   http://www.survas.mdx.ac.uk/pdfs/3durong.pdf (2002

Lo, Fu-chen and Yue-man Yeung, eds.  “The urbanization of Bangkok:  It’s prominence, problems, and prospects.”  Emerging World Cities in Pacific Asia.  URL:  http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu11ee/uu11ee0z.thm (1996).

National Geographic Society Scientists.  “Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World.”  URL:  http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial (2002).

Panyachatraksa, Prapat. “Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment: A Short Profile.”  Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. November 19 2003. http://web.mnre.go.th/web_prapat/publish/SHORT_PROFILE_by_PRAPA-APEC.pdf

Practices or Thai Development Strategies?  Society & Natural Resources 15 (6): 483-501.  Deforestation.  Bangkok Post.  FT Asia Africa Intelligence Wire.  20 August 2001.  1-2. 

Ramitanondh, Shalardchai.  Culture and Environment in Thailand: A Symposium of the Siam Society.  23-50.  Bangkok: The Siam Society, 1989.

"Roads, Population Pressures, and Deforestation in Thailand, 1976-89." Viewed on  November  8th, 2003.  http://www.worldbank.org/html/dec/Publications/Workpapers/WPS1700series/wps1726/wps1726-abstract.html. 

Sasaki, Hitomi.  “Urbanization Transition and its Impact in Thailand.”  URL:   http://www-personal.umich.edu/~wddrake/sasaki.html (1996).

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