Kant, Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals

Nature of Kant's enterprise:  to derive a theory of morality from pure rationality; an ethical view that you should follow because it is irrational not to

Only thing good without qualification (good for all people in all situations) is a good will
Not good because it makes people happy; good even if accomplishes nothing
"good" = having moral worth
"duty" vs. "inclination"
- what you should do vs. what you want to do
Good will = will that acts from duty (not from inclination)
 (not just in accordance w/duty)
To act from duty is to act out of respect for the moral law
Moral law: the categorical imperative [unconditional command; the one rule everyone should always obey]
Categorical imperative:  Act only on that maxim that you can at the same time will to be a universal law.
Maxim:  Your reason (true motive) for acting as you do.
 "In order to accomplish x, when I am in situation y, I will do z."
To check whether this maxim accords with the categorical imperative, you need to see whether you can wish both for this and for everyone always automatically to do the same in the same situation.  Called "universalizing."
Logical test:  cannot will both if they conflict with each other.

Based on the idea that it is irrational to prefer yourself to others; you are not better than them

People may fail to act from duty because they are swayed by inclination, preference for self.

When we act selfishly, we make ourselves an exception; we also think that the general rule should hold for others (or most of the time) "we actually acknowledge the validity of the categorical imperative" p. 41

Second formulation of the CI:  Never treat a person merely as means, but always also as an end in him/herself.

Do not treat people as if they were mere objects, existing only to serve your own ends.  Treat them as if their goals and desires are just as important as yours.

Does not mean "never use a person"; permissible to use them as long as they have a genuine choice of whether to help us attain our ends.

Emphasis on equality of rational beings
Not self-denial: you are as important as others.

Objections to Kant's theory

1.  Not clear that actions should be judged solely on motives; consequences also important
2.  Kant does not provide any criteria for the level of specificity of the maxim; thus I may be able to universalize maxims that are clearly immoral as long I can never be in the position of the person harmed.
3.  Kant's theory does not protect against completely distorted view of the world or personal, sincerely held prejudices.
Reply:  second formulation prohibits us to use persons as mere means; this prevents at least some of the problems raised by (2) and (3).
3.  Neither formulation accounts for duties to animals.