Office: SIS Annex 2

Phone: 202 885 1656

Office Hours:

Wednesday: 12:00-1:30 and 5:00-6:00 PM

Thursday: 2:00-4:00 PM, or by appointment

Course objectives:

1. Explore and discuss the historical and current debates in the development of conflict resolution as a field of inquiry and research.

2. Understand the various conflict resolution models of intervention and their theoretical bases.

3. Creatively confront and challenge the current theories and applied models of conflict resolution.

Course Description:

This course is aimed to present and discuss the major theoretical approaches to conflict and conflict resolution. It examines theories that attempt to explain causes, dynamic, courses, and resolution of conflicts. It surveys theoretical frameworks from different disciplines and the few emerging conflict resolution theories.  Thus, the boundaries and definitions of the field of conflict resolution will be discussed. The competing theoretical approaches their limitations and strengths in explain certain types and levels of conflicts. Also, the course examines needs and obstacles in the developments of future theories in conflict resolution field.

A second portion of the class focuses on the practice of conflict resolution. It explores various current intervention models in the field of conflict resolution, which is being applied on interpersonal, community, and international levels (some of these models are the various types of problem solving, mediation, facilitation, negotiation, etc).  Some of the questions which will be discussed are: What type of relationships exist between these models and the theoretical approaches of conflict resolution?  What are the theoretical bases of these models? What are the criteria of an effective model of conflict resolution? What are the major challenges that face practitioners of conflict resolution today?

The third part of the course investigates the limitations and critiques which has been identified in both levels of practice and theory of conflict resolution. Also it looks at the potential sources of change and development that exist in this field. Thus, issues of social and political change are discussed at this section as well as factors such as: class, gender, power, culture etc.

Required Readings

Burton and Dukes, (eds.), Readings in Management and Resolution, New York: St. Martin's

Press, 1990.

Sandole Dennis and Hugo Van der Merwe, (eds.), Conflict Resolution : Theory and Practice: Integration and Application, Manchester University Press), 1993.

A Course Pack for : Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice (33.609.01), 1998.

Course Requirements:

Readings Summaries10%

Case Study Analysis 20%

Conflict Intervention Design25%

Take Home Exam35%

Participation10%

1. Participation and Readings: I certainly expect everyone to be fully prepared for each class. Such preparation includes the completion of the required readings and the assigned projects.  Knowledge of the readings and other information is an important part of the course, however, a more important aspect of this course is the attempt to apply such material on actual cases. Therefore, in the grading process special emphasis will be placed on such attempt. To insure consistent readings of the material each student is expected to provide a summary of the assigned readings for each class no more than two typed pages. The summary should relate to the main points raised in each article and end with a brief expression of your opinion and evaluation of these articles.  These reports are considered as a part of your class participation grade. In regard to class attendance, it is very unlikely that anyone missing more than two class periods, for whatever reason, will receive higher than "C" for class participation. It is the responsibility of any student who misses classes during the semester to confer with the instructor to see whether he or she should continue the course.

2. Case Study Analysis: Each students is expected to select a case study or a conflict and analyze it according to the one or more theoretical approach of conflict resolution. The paper is due, in class, on: October 14, 1998. Individual or group presentation of the case study are part of the assignment.

3. Conflict Intervention Design: Each student is expected to comprehensively examine an intervention plan which has been designed and implemented for an ongoing conflict. The case study for this assignment can not be the same case study which had been used for analysis, a new one has to be selected. The paper is due, in class, on: November 18, 1998. Individual or group presentation of the case study are part of the assignment and students will be graded based on both the presentation and the written report.

4. Take Home Exam: Each student is expected to complete a take home exam.

No extension will be granted, and papers or exams that will be turned late will lose ½ of a grade for each day. Further information and more specific instructions will be provided on each of the assignments. The take home exam is due on December 16 and will be available on December 14^th.

INTRODUCTION

Sept. 2 The Emergence of Conflict Resolution as a Field of Study and Practice:

Definitions, Terminology, and Boundaries

What are the conditions that influenced the emergence of conflict resolution as a field of practice and research? What were some of the early initiative in the field? And who led them?

What are the different relations that conflict resolution as a field has with other disciplines?

What are the boundaries of this field?

Required Readings:

1. Laue, J., "The Emergence and Institutionalization of Third Party Roles in Conflict." In: Burton and Dukes Conflict: Readings in Management and Resolution, 256-275.

2. Boulding, K. "Future Direction in Conflict and Peace Studies." In : Burton and Dukes, Conflict: Readings in Management and Resolution, 35-47.

Recommended Readings:

1. Scimecca, J., "Conflict Resolution in the United States: The Emergence of a Profession?" In: K. Avruch, P. Black, and J. Scimecca, Conflict Resolution in Cross-cultural Perspectives. Westport, CT.: Greenwood Press, 1991, 19-36.

THEORETICAL CONCEPTS, PRINCIPLES, APPROACHES, AND FRAMEWORKS OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION

What are the characteristics of the paradigm shift?

Required Readings:

1. D. Sandole, "Paradigms, Theories, and Metaphors in Conflict Resolution: Coherence or Confusion?" In: Sandole Dennis and Hugo Van Der Merwe, (eds.), Conflict Resolution : Theory and Practice, 3-24.

2. Michael Banks, "International Relations Discipline: Asset or Liability for Conflict Resolution?" In: Burton and Dukes, Conflict: Readings in Management and Resolution, 51-70.

3. A. J. R. Groom, "Paradigms in Conflict: the Strategist, the Conflict Researcher, and the Peace Researcher." Burton and Dukes, Conflict: Readings in Management and Resolution, 71-98.

4. L. Kriesberg, Social Conflict Theories and Conflict Resolution, Peace and Change, Vol. 8 No. 2/3, 1994, 3-18. (Reserve)

Recommended Readings:

1. "The Foundations of Conflict Theory., In Schellenberg, J., The Science of Conflict, Oxford University Press, 1982.

2. Quincy Wright, "The Nature of Conflict." In : Burton and Dukes, Conflict: Readings in Management and Resolution, 15-33.

Sept. 16Human Needs Theory

What are the major principles of this theoretical approach?

Does it stand the critique? What are its strengths and limitations?

Required Readings:

1. Paul Sites, "Legitimacy and Human needs." In: Burton and Dukes, Conflict: Readings in Management and Resolution, 117-144.

2. Burton, J. "Human Needs Theory." In Burton J., Conflict: Human Need Theory, New York: St. Martin's, 1990 .(Reserve)

3. J. Rossati, D. J. Carroll and R. A. Coate, " A Critical Assessment of the Power of Human Needs in World Society." In: Burton and Dukes, Conflict: Readings in Management and Resolution, 156-182.

Recommended Readings:

1. Burton J., Conflict: Human Need Theory, New York: St. Martin's, 1990

2. Mary Clark, "Symptoms of Cultural Pathologies: A hypothesis." In: Sandole Dennis and Hugo Van Der Merwe, (eds.), Conflict Resolution : Theory and Practice, 43-54.

Sept. 23 Interests, Structures, and Conflict Dynamics

What are the basic theoretical concepts in conflict resolution? What type of relationships exist between them?

Required Readings:

1. Dean Pruitt and Jeffrey Rubin. Social Conflicts, New York: Random House, 1986. Chapter 1-3 (1-40). (Reserve)

2. C. Mitchell, "The Structure," and "The Process" In Structure of International Conflicts. St. London: St. Martin's 1981.  (Reserve)

3. Galtung, J. "Violence, Peace and Peace Research." Journal of Peace Research VI, 1969. (Reserve)

Recommended Readings:

1. Jeffrey Rubin, "The Timing of Ripeness and the Ripeness of Timing." In: Kriesberg "Timing and the De Escalation of International Conflicts." New York: Syracuse press, 1991 237-246.

Sept. 30 Perceptions, Attitudes, and Problem Solving

Can changes in perceptions and attitudes resolve all conflicts?

How does change in perceptions occur?

What is the role of the third party in changing perceptions?

How does change in perceptions produce changes in the policy?

What are the different types of problem solving workshops?

Can they be applied in both domestic and international conflicts?

Required Readings:

1. Anthony de Reuck, "A Theory Conflict Resolution by Problem Solving." In: Burton and Dukes, Conflict: Readings in Management and Resolution, 183-198.

2. C. Mitchell, "Problem Solving Exercises and Theories of Conflict Resolution."In: Sandole Dennis and Hugo Van Der Merwe, (eds.), Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice, 78-94.

3. H. Kelman Interactive Problem Solving: A Social Psychological Approach to Conflict Resolution." In: Burton and Dukes, Conflict: Readings in Management and Resolution, 1990215.

Recommended Readings:

1. Morton Deutsch, "Conflict Resolution:Theory and Practice." Political Psychology, 4, 3, 431-52.

2. Intergroup Relations Theories (see Contact Hypothesis, Hewstone and Brown 1986).

Oct. 7 Methodology and Research in Conflict Resolution

What are the major research questions in the conflict resolution field today?

What type of research designs have been used in conflict resolution research?

How to connect practice, research and theory? And why?

Required Readings:

1. D. Druckman, " An Analytical Research Agenda for Conflict and Conflict Resolution." In: Sandole Dennis and Hugo Van Der Merwe, (eds.), Conflict Resolution : Theory and Practice, 25-42.

2. Frank Duke, "Action Research." In: Burton and Dukes, Conflict: Readings in Management and Resolution, 288-300.

3. P. Wallenstein, "The Origin of Peace Research." In: Peace Research: Achievement and Challenges , By: P. Wallenstein, ed. 1988, Boulder, Co: Westview Press., 7-29.  (Reserve)

4. John Murray, "Using Theory In Conflict Resolution Practice." In: Sandole Dennis and Hugo Van Der Merwe, (eds.), Conflict Resolution : Theory and Practice, 222-231.

Recommended readings:

1. J. Bennet, G. Cook, and S. Thorson, "From Theory to Practice and Back: Research Directions." In: L. Kriesberg, "Timing and the De Escalation of International Conflicts." New York: Syracuse Press, 1991, 247-266.

CONFLICT RESOLUTION METHODS AND THIRD PARTY ROLE

What are the major types of negotiation processes?

How do negotiation processes relate to conflict resolution theories?

How to utilize the various negotiation skills at different stages of the conflict?

What are the characteristics of the arbitration process?

How is arbitration implemented in international conflicts?

How does culture influence negotiation strategies and outcomes?

Required Readings:

1. M.C.W. Pinto, "Structure, Process, Outcome: Thoughts on the 'Essense' of International Arbitration,"  The Flame Rekindle: New Hopes for International Arbitration, Eds. Sam Muller & Wim Mijs, London: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1993.  (Reserve)

2. Janice Gross Stein, "Getting to the Table: the Triggers, Stages, Functions, and Consequences of Renegotiation." In: Janice Gross Stein, Getting to the Table: the Process of International Renegotiation, Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press, 19--, 239-268.

3. Roger Fisher and William Ury, Getting To Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving, New York: Penguin Books, 1991.  (Reserve)

Recommended Readings:

1. R. Cohen, Negotiation Across Cultures, USIP, 1992.

2. Lewicki and et.al "Strategies and Tactics of Distributive Bargaining." and Strategies and "Tactics of Integrative Bargaining." In: Essentials of negotiation Roy Lewicki D,.Saunders, and J. Winton, Chicago: Irwin, 1997, 30-90.

Oct. 21 Third Party Role in Conflict Resolution Processes: Mediation

What are the different types of mediation processes?

What are the characteristics of international mediation?

Have mediation processes been effective in settling international conflicts?

Required Readings:

1. J. Bercovitch, "Mediators and Mediation Strategies in International Relations." Negotiation Journal April 1992, 90-112.  (Reserve)

2. Saadia Touval and W. Zartman, Conclusion: Mediation: theory and Practice." In S. Touval and W. Zartman, International Mediation in Theory and Practice, Boulder: Westview Press, 1985, 251-286.  (Reserve)

3. L. Kriesberg, "Varieties of Mediating Activities  And Mediators in International Relations." In: Bercovitch, J., (ed.), Resolving International Conflicts: The Theory and Practice Mediation, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1996. 219-234.  (Reserve)

4. Brian Mandell, "The Limits of Mediation: Lessons From the Syria-Israel Experience, 1974-1994. In: Bercovitch, J., (ed.), Resolving International Conflicts: The Theory and Practice of Mediation, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1996. 153-170.  (Reserve)

Recommended Readings:

1. C. Moore, "Approaches to Managing and Resolving Conflicts" and "How Mediation Works." in: C. Moore, Mediation Process, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986.

2. K. Kressel and D. Pruitt "A Research Perspective on the Mediation of Social Conflicts," In: K. Kressel and D. Pruitt, Mediation Research, London and San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1989.

3. D. Kolb and Eileen Babbitt, "Mediation Practices on the Home Front: Implications for Global Conflict Resolution." In: Vasquez, J. et. al., eds. Beyond Confrontation: Learning Conflict Resolution in the post Cold War Era. University of Michigan, 1995, 63-86.

4. J. Bercovitch and A. Houston, The Study of International Mediation: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Evidence." In: Bercovitch, J., (ed.), Resolving International Conflicts: The Theory and Practice of Mediation, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1996, 11-35.

Oct. 28 Second Track Diplomacy And Peace building: Transformative Non Violent

What are the characteristics of reconciliation process?

How do conflict resolution processes contribute to the processes of Peace building?

What are the applications of conflict resolution processes in divided society and deep rooted conflicts?

Do conflict resolution process have a role in creating a global culture of peace?

What the different tracks of diplomacy?

How effective is the second track diplomacy in resolving conflicts?

What are the functions of the second track diplomacy strategies?

Required Readings:

1. John McDonald, "Managing Complexity Through Small group Dynamics," In: Burton and Dukes, Conflict: Readings in Management and Resolution, 241-255.

2. John McDonald, "International Conference Diplomacy," In: Sandole Dennis and Hugo Van Der Merwe, (eds.), Conflict Resolution : Theory and Practice, 248-260.

3. J. Montville, "The Healing Function in Political Conflict Resolution." In: Sandole Dennis and Hugo Van Der Merwe, (eds.), Conflict Resolution : Theory and Practice, 112-128.

4. J. Paul Lederach, "Sustainable Reconciliation In Divided Societies." A paper submitted to United Nations University, Tokyo, Japan, 1994, 1-64.  (Reserve)

5. Elise Boulding, Peace Praxis: the Crafts and Skills of Doing Peace. In: Building a Global Civic Culture: Education for an Interdependent World, New York: Teachers College Press, 1988, 140-159.  (Reserve)

Recommended Readings:

1. J. Montville, "The Arrow and the Olive Branch: A Case for Track two Diplomacy." In The Psychodynamics of International Relationships: Unofficial Diplomacy at Work. By: V. Volcan, J. Montville, and D. Julius, Massachusetts/Toronto: Lexington Books, 1993, 161-179.

2. John McDonald, "Further exploration of Track Two Diplomacy." In: Timing The De-Escalation of International Conflicts. Eds. L. Kriesberg and S. Thorson, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1991, 201-220.

3. Galtung, Johann, Peace and Social Structure, Cobenhagen: Christian Ejlers, 1978.

4. Gene Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action: Power and Struggle. Boston: Porter Sargent Publishers, 1973.

CONFLICT RESOLUTION THEORY AND PRACTICE:

What impacts do cultural processes have on conflict resolution theories and processes?

Should conflict resolution interveners or trainers design different processes based on the cultural context?

Are there generic processes of conflict resolution?

Required Readings:

1. K. Avruch and p. Black, "Conflict Resolution in Intercultural Settings: Problems and Prospects." In: Sandole Dennis and Hugo Van Der Merwe, (eds.), Conflict Resolution : Theory and Practice, 131-145.

2. M. Abu-Nimer," Western and Non Western Approaches Of Conflict Resolution." American Journal of Economic and Sociology January, 1997.  (Reserve)

3. Douglas Fry and Brooks Fry, "Culture and Conflict Resolution Models: Exploring Alternatives to Violence." In: Cultural Variation in Conflict Resolution, Eds. Fry, Douglas and Bjorkqvist Kaj, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 1997, 9-25.  (Reserve)

Recommended Readings:

1. John Murray, "The Cairo Stories: Some Reflections on Conflict resolution in Egypt." Negotiation Journal, 13:1, January 1997, 39-60.

2. Wallace Warfield, "Public-Policy Conflict Resolution: The Nexus Between Culture and Process". In: Sandole Dennis and Hugo Van Der Merwe, (eds.), Conflict Resolution : Theory and Practice, 176-193.

3. 4. K. Avruch and P. Black, "Ideas of Human Nature in Contemporary Conflict Resolution Theory, Negotiation Journal, July 1990, 221-228. (Reserve)

4. D. Augsburger, "Conflict: the Power of Honor, Dignity, and Face." In: Conflict mediation Across Cultures: Pathways and Patterns." By: David Augsburger, Louisville, Kentucky: Westminister/John Knox Press, 1992, 73-112.

Nov. 11 Religion, Ethnicity, Gender

Do and how religious, ethnic, and gender factors influence processes, outcomes, and role of the third party in the conflict resolution field?

How do conflict resolution theories explain dynamics, outcomes, escalation, and deescalation of religious, ethnic or gender conflicts?

Required Readings:

1. S. Ryan,  "Ethnic Conflict Resolution: A Model." In: Ethnic Conflicts And International Relations, Stephan Ryan, Brookfield, USA: Dartmouth, 1990, 50-95.  (Reserve)

2. Stamato, L. Voice, Place, and Process: Research on Gender, Negotiation, and Conflict Resolution,. Mediation Quarterly, 9,4, 1992, 375-386.  (Reserve)

3. E.Z. Berg,"Gendering Conflict Resolution." Peace and Change, 19 (4), 1994, 325-347.  (Reserve)

4. Cynthia Sampson, "Religion and Peace building." In: W. Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen, eds. Peace making in international Conflict: Methods and techniques, Washington, DC.: USIP Press, 1997, 271-312.  (Reserve)

Recommended Readings:

1. S. Ryan, "The Management Versus the Resolution Debate." In: Ethnic Conflicts And International Relations, Stephan Ryan, Brookfield, USA: Dartmouth, 1990, 96-117.

2. L. Kriesberg, "Application and Misapplication of Conflict Resolution Ideas to International Conflicts." In: Beyond Confrontation. J. Vasquez Et. Al., (eds.) An Arbor, The University of Michigan Press, 1995.

3. Leitch, M. L. The Politics of Compromise: A Feminist Perspective on Mediation. Mediation Quarterly, 14 (15), 1987, 163-175.

4. P. Kirkup, "Some Religious Perspectives On Forgiveness and Settling Differences." Mediation Quarterly, Vol. 11 No. 1. Fall 1993, 7994.

Nov. 18 Power, Justice, Class and Social Change

Are conflict resolution processes being coopted for social and political control?

What are the criteria of success in a conflict resolution intervention?

Can mediation and arbitration processes contribute to political change?

Required Readings:

1. Nader, L. "Trading Justice for Harmony, NIDR Forum, Winter, 1992, 12-14.  (Reserve)

2. R. Folger, B. Sheppard, and R. Buttram. "Equity, Equality, and need: three Faces of Social Justice." In: Conflict, Cooperation, and Justice, Bunker Rubin & Associates. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1995, 261-289.  (Reserve)

3. J. Scimecca, "Conflict Resolution: the Basis for Social Control or Social Change?" In: Conflict Management and Problem Solving: Interpersonal to International Approaches. By: D. Sandole and I. Sandole, New York: New York University Press, 1987, 30-32.  (Reserve)

Recommended Readings:

1. Ethical Standards of Professional Responsibility, Society of Professionals in Dispute Resolution (Spider), Washington, DC. (Adopted June 1986). 

2. J. Scimecca, "Theory and Alternative Dispute Resolution: A Contradiction in Terms?" In: Sandole Dennis and Hugo Van Der Merwe, (eds.), Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice,  211-221.

Dec. 2 POWER AND JUSTICE

Can conflict resolution processes achieve justice?

What are the various responses of conflict resolution theories and models to the problem of considerable power disparities in a conflict situation?

Required Readings:

1. J. Laue and J. Cormick, "The Ethics of Intervention in Community Disputes." In the Ethics of Social intervention. Eds. Gordon Bermant, H. Kelman, and D. Warwick, Washington DC: Halsted Press, 1978, 205-232.  (Reserve)

2. J. Burton, "Conflict Resolution as a Political Philosophy." In: Sandole Dennis and Hugo Van Der Merwe, (eds.), Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice,  55-64.

3. R. Rubenstein, "The Analyzing and Resolving of Class Conflict." In: Sandole Dennis and Hugo Van Der Merwe, (eds.), Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice,  146-157.

Recommended Readings:

1. Boulding, K. " The Nature of Power." In: Three Faces of Power. By: Boulding, K., Newbury Park: Sage Publications, 1989,33.

2. R. Baruch Bush and J. Folger, "Mediation A at the Crossroads; The Transformative Approach to Mediation." In: The Promise of Mediation.: Responding to Conflict through Empowerment and Recognition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1994, 15-55-79 and 81-112.

Dec. 9 FUTURE OF THE CONFLICT RESOLUTION FIELD

What are the potential future directions and developments in conflict resolution?

Required Readings:

1. Kriesberg, L. (1991). "Conflict Resolution Applications to Peace Studies." Peace and Change, Vol. 16 No. 4, 400-417.  (Reserve)

2. John Vasquez, "Why Global Conflict Resolution is Possible: Meeting the challenges of the New World Order." In: Vasquez, J. et. al., eds. Beyond Confrontation: Learning Conflict Resolution in the post Cold War Era. University of Michigan, 1995, 131-154. (Reserve)

A List of Recommended Texts in Conflict Resolution and Peace Research:

Bercovitch, J., (ed.), Resolving International Conflicts: The Theory and Practice of Mediation, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1996.

Boulding, Elise, Building a Global Civic Culture: Education for an Interdependent World, New York: Teacher College Press, 1989.

Burton, J., Conflict Resolutions a Political System, George Mason University, 1989.

Burton, J., Resolving Deep-Rooted Conflict: A Handbook, Center For Conflict Resolution, GMU and UMD: University press of America, 1987.

Burton, J., Conflict: Human Needs Theory, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990.

Burton J. and Dukes F.,   Practice in Management, Settlement, and Resolution,  New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990.

Burton: Conflict and Provention, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990.

Carry, Dennis, "A Discipline Development Model for Peace Studies,"  Peace and Change Vol. 6, Winter, 1980.

Cox, Gray, The ways of Peace: A Philosophy of Peace as Action, New York: Paulist Press, 1986.

Curle, Adams, Making Peace, London: Tavistock Publication, 1971.

Dugan Maire, A , ed., Conflict Resolution,  Special Issue of Peace and Change, Vol VIII, No. 2/3.

Fisher, Roger and William Ury , Getting To Yes, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1981.

Galtung, Johann, Peace and Social Structure, Cobenhagen: Christian Ejlers, 1978.

Galtung, Johann, "Violence, peace, and Peace research" Journal of Peace Research Vol. Vi, No 3, 1969.

Kriesberg, L., Terrel Northrup and Stuart Thorson, (e's.). Intractable Conflicts and Their Transformation, Syracuse: Syracuse Press, 1989.

Laue James and Gerald Cormick. "The Ethics of Intervention in Community Disputes," in The Ethics of Intervention, Bermant, G., Kelman, H.C. & Warwick, D.P. (e's.), Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing, 1978.

Lopez George. Peace Studies: Past and Future, Vol. 504, July, 1989. The Annals. Newbury Park, CA: Sage publication, 1989.

Mitchell, C., The Structure of International Conflicts, London: Macmillan, 1981.

Montville, J. (ed.). Conflict And Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies, Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1990

Moore, C., The Mediation process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflicts, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986

Pruitt, D & Rubin, J.Z., Social Conflicts: Escalation, Stalemate, Entrapment, New York: Random House, 1986.

Vasquez, J. et. al., e's. Beyond Confrontation: Learning Conflict Resolution in the post Cold War Era. University of Michigan, 1995

Wehr, Paul. Conflict Regulation. Boulder: Westview Press, 1979.

William Zartman and Lewis Rasmussen E's. Peacemaking in international Conflict: Methods and Techniques, Washington, DC.: USIP Press, 1997