MESQUITE
Mesquite Trade and Tex-Mex Food (MESQUITE)
CASE NUMBER: 116
CASE MNEMONIC: MESQUITE
CASE NUMBER: Mesquite Deforestation
A. IDENTIFICATION
1. The Issue
In the Sonoran Desert of Mexico, the mesquite tree is being
harvested in order to fulfill the demand for mesquite charcoal.
Since roughly 1980, mesquite wood has been used as a cooking fuel
to enrich the flavor and scent of grilled foods. In the last
decade, the demand and popularity of mesquite has augmented. Over
500,000 acres of mesquite have been cleared in northern Mexico in
order to meet the growing demand. The ecological importance of
mesquite is well-documented by desert scientists. More than 200
plants and animal species depend on the mesquite for survival and
reproduction. Critics claim that "the production of mesquite
charcoal is an issue reminiscent of Third World tropical rain
forests, where trees are cut at the expense of native plants,
animals and people." As a result, mesquite cutting has become a
highly controversial issue between producers and consumers
throughout Mexico and North America. Although some measures are in
place to reduce the acquisition of mesquite, the issue remains a
matter of controversy.
2. Description
Cooking with mesquite became popular in the mid-1980s.
Mesquite charcoal burns slowly and releases heat and a rich scent
that permeates grilled food. Many restaurants, for example,
frequently advertise a menu that includes mesquite grilled steaks,
chicken, and fish. Burning mesquite is also popular because it is
a smokeless barbecuing technique. Producers and consumers of
mesquite coal can be found throughout North America. Although
restaurants provide the primary market for mesquite coal, a 40
pound bag can be purchased at most grocery stores from Maine to
Washington state for $10.25. At least 95 percent of mesquite
charcoal sold in the United States is removed from the Sonoran
Desert, from areas where the trees are very slow growing.
To a minor extent, mesquite is sometimes used for other
purposes. In Mexico, aside from the primary purpose of making
charcoal, the wood is also used to fire kilns that create colorful
roof and floor tiles. In both the U.S. and Mexico, mesquite is
also in demand because it burns for a substantial amount of time,
thus providing a more inexpensive form of heat to many homes. The
Seri Indians also use mesquite and related woods for carvings which
support their reservations.
The Mexican government has scheduled more than two million
hectares of land in the Sonoran Desert for future vegetation
conversion. The purposes is to establish artificial grasslands as
a source of forage for livestock. Already, in Sonora Mexico, 1
million acres of mesquite and mesquite related forests have been
cleared in order to convert land for agricultural purposes. The
combination of these factors present a serious threat to the
biological diversity of the desert. However, charcoal production
extracts the bulk of mesquite and represents the most serious trade
related issue in the region. In fact, over one fifth of total
acreage depletion in the Sonoran Desert is being used explicitly
for the production of mesquite charcoal.
Within the last decade, the demand for mesquite charcoal has
exerted enormous strain on the Sonoran Desert. For one, mesquite
is not the only species being removed from the desert. The
slow-growing ironwood tree, which is the second hardest wood in the
world, is being cut as a by-product of mesquite clearing.
Ironwood is used by 3,000 Seri Indians for its famous carving
potential. In addition, ironwood trees are known to nurse plants
and protect cacti from desert extremes. Many other legumes
critical to the stability of the desert eco-system are also
destroyed in the process.
Much of the habitat in the Sonoran desert is either unique or
endangered. The boojum plant, for example, is considered both rare
and endangered in the Sonoran Desert region. The boojum plant
grows in areas that acquire four inches of rainfall annually. It
can reach 40 feet in height and is well known for its odd shape and
appearance.
The saguaro cactus (carnegiea gigantea) grows only in the
Sonoran Desert in Arizona, northern Mexico and a portion of
southeastern California near the Colorado river (see COLORADO) case). The saguaro cactus has a
normal life span of 175 years and can grow to a height of 50 feet.
In order to grow and develop, a saguaro needs a sheltering "nurse
plant" such as the ironwood or mesquite to grow under. The saguaro
cactus is considered an endangered plant because vast quantities
are dying without apparent justification. Joe McAuliffe, the
director of research at the Desert Botanical Garden, completed a
study for the National Park Service that analyzed the decline of
the saguaro cactus. According to McAuliffe, the decline of the
saguaro is a result of heavy tree cutting. He states that "without
palo verde and mesquite trees to shelter them, young saguaros are
extremely vulnerable."
The saguaro cactus is valuable to the entire desert eco-
system. While the saguaro cactus depends desert trees to grow,
thousands of species depend on the saguaro for survival. As Jim
McCausland notes in Sunset, "At any stage of life, saguaros are
connected in some way with every plant and animal in the desert."
Specifically, the fruits of the cacti nourish insects, birds, and
bats. Native peoples in the area also harvest the nectar of the
saguaro. In addition, the awesome size of the cacti provide
shelter for many animals and birds. As the saguaro cactus
demonstrates, the Sonoran desert is a complex and mutually
dependent eco-system. Overall, there may be as many as 500
diverse plants in any given area of the desert.
Endangered wildlife species are also present in the Sonoran
Desert. The Sonoran pronghorn antelope, desert bighorn, and the
masked bobwhite quail also depend on the ironwood and mesquite for
shelter and forage. Dr. Gary Nabhan, the director of the
organization Native Seeds/SEARCH, noted in The Phoenix Gazette that
"the denuding of the Sonoran Desert over the past century has
reduced the numbers of 36 of the 82 kinds of birds that depend on
the flood-plain mesquite forest habitat." In a related article,
Dr. Nabhan also states: "If both the U.S. and Mexico do not address
deforestation soon, other efforts to protect endangered species in
this area will be undermined."
Indeed, the environmental value of the mesquite and ironwood
tree is well documented. It is estimated that more than 200 plants
and animal species depend on both the mesquite and ironwood. As
mentioned, ironwood trees are critical to the survival of many
plants and cacti in the Sonoran Desert. More than 160 plant
species alone depend on the "nursing" effect for their dispersal,
germination, seedling establishment and survival. The "elimination
of ironwood from a 20-square-mile area could possibly deplete
overall plant diversity."
A joint study conducted by Conservation International and the
Ironwood Alliance identified the many species that depend on the
ironwood and mesquite trees. In brief, the comprehensive study
concluded that under an "ironwood canopy" species richness was 36
percent greater and abundance was 46 percent greater. In "non-
riparian" habitats, the effects of the ironwood were more profound.
The study discovered that ironwood increased abundance by 88
percent and species richness by 64 percent. There is also 35
percent more plant diversity in ironwood dominated areas than in
random desert plots. Some of the vegetation which prospered under
the ironwood tree includes epiphytes, large cacti, vines, large
shrubs, small perennials, and medium sized shrubs.
In reference to animal habitat and the ironwood, it was
determined that the ironwood tree was ecologically important to
both survival and reproduction. Namely, bird nest frequencies were
higher in areas that provided an ironwood canopy. In a survey of
nine one-hectare sites, there were a total of 27 nests in ironwood
and only 19 nests in other trees and shrub species. Animal use
of the ironwood was abundant and evidenced by bedding sites, fecal
matter, and packrat nests. In sum, as the study concludes:
the presence of ironwood causes a marked increase in the
stratification of the Sonoran Desert communities,
creating not only an ecologically more diverse community,
but a more structurally diverse community as well. This
in turn affects overall faunal diversity as a more
diverse flora affords a larger base for herbivores to
feed on and hence more opportunities for primary and
secondary predators.
Yet the mesquite tree is equally valuable to the region.
Mesquite is a weed-like plant with small green leaves and yellow
hanging beans. Like the ironwood, it is often called a "nurse"
plant because of its ability to repair and protect animal and plant
species from the extremities of the desert. It is repeatedly noted
that "the nectar, flowers and foliage of the mesquite (and
ironwood) tree provide nutrients to many types of bees, reptiles,
amphibians, birds and mammals." In addition, it has recently
been discovered that the seeds of the mesquite and ironwood trees
are effective in controlling the blood sugar levels of diabetics.
"Removal of these trees and even the thinning of their branches can
kill cactuses, vines, shrubs, and desert wildflowers by exposing
them to harsh sunlight and temperatures."
If mesquite cutting continues there will be devastating and
long-term consequences in the Sonoran Desert. Although mesquite is
considered a resilient plant, it will nonetheless take 50 to 100
years to grow back. Ironwood, on the other hand, has an
extremely low regeneration rate.
Because the ironwood is one of the most ancient living
organisms with a life span of 1200 years or more it is difficult to
pinpoint a precise regeneration rate. It is estimated, however,
that "ironwood recruitment may be episodic- perhaps occurring 5-10
years per century."
As mentioned, the removal of ironwood from any given area
could destroy all plant diversity. It is estimated that cacti
regeneration will take at least 500 years because of their immense
dependence on ironwood and mesquite. In fact, along the coast
of Sonora near Kino Bay, where most of the mesquite and ironwood
has been removed, the collapse of the ecosystem is already
occurring. Virtually all plant and animal life has disappeared
and citizens must now travel 30 to 50 miles to obtain wood. In
short, a decrease in ironwood and mesquite will result in lower
levels of diversity, abundance, and species. Ironwood: An
Ecological and Cultural Keystone of the Sonoran Desert best
captures the essence and magnitude of the issue:
The Sonoran Desert is the most structurally diverse arid
land ecosystem in North America. Within this system, the
interactions taking place between plants, animals, and
the physical environment from a complex, highly
integrated wed of dependencies and associations that have
evolved since the landscape was covered with junipers,
oaks, and pines 9,000 years before the present. The
patterns of diversity found in the Sonoran Desert today
reveal a mosaic of the differential influences imparted
by the limiting factor affecting biodiversity, and the
high degree of complexity found in this living system.
Some protective measures have been implemented to limit
mesquite cutting. In 1993, the Arizona-Mexico Commission, a
quasi-governmental organization, and the Mexican state Sonoran
government passed legislation which made it illegal to cut and
export live ironwood. SEDESOL recently decreed ironwood a
protected species in the Republic of Mexico and is providing
additional enforcement and monitoring. In addition, many
organizations have been active in campaigning against cooking with
wood from the mesquite tree.
For example, The Ironwood Alliance, which is a coalition of
conservation groups, desert scientists, businesses, and crafts-
people from the U.S.-Mexico border region, was largely responsible
for the passage of the 1993 legislation. Other groups, such as
Conservation International and Native Seeds/SEARCH have been active
in efforts to limit mesquite harvesting. In addition, Gary Nabhan,
research director of Native Seeds/SEARCH, is actively exploring the
use of aerial surveys of Geographic Position Systems (GPS's) to
pinpoint the location of clandestine charcoal sites. This effort
would help locate wood-cutting operations in Mexico which are now
illegal and provide evidence to the Mexican government. SECOFI is
also working with the Seri Indian carvers who have been impacted by
the increasing scarcity of ironwood on the Sonoran coast. Finally,
even scientists are scrutinizing harvesting practices in the
Sonoran Desert and are making a powerful impact.
Naturally, mesquite suppliers resist efforts that would impede
the production and consumption of mesquite coal. One of the
biggest mesquite suppliers in northern California is the Lazzarri
Fuel Company. According Lazzarri's owner Kenneth Millhiser, which
has sold mesquite for over 50 years, land in the Sonoran desert is
no longer specifically cleared for charcoal. Millhiser claims
that the environmental devastation is instead linked to efforts by
the Mexican agencies to clear land for agriculture or ranching.
In Mexico, however, although mesquite cutting is now indirectly
illegal, the practice continues. It is speculated that some
woodcutters sneak across borders to cut trees in Organ Pipe
National Monument and on the Tohono O'Odham Indian Reservation
southwest of Tucson. Clearly, the issue will remain a matter of
controversy between environmentalists and charcoal producers.
Environmentally safe alternatives to mesquite charcoal have
been introduced in an attempt to resolve the dispute. Eco-Char
products, for example, are environmentally safe and provide the
same flavoring as mesquite. The Eco-Char Company was founded the
late 1980s to provide "economically safe alternatives." Eco-Char
advertises "earth friendly" products and guarantees that each
consist of "100 percent" organic materials. A spokesman from
Sub-Continent Inc., the partner corporation of Eco-Char, states
that within the past few years the positive response to their
products has allowed significant expansion. Distributors of Eco-
Char can now be found in all portions of the United States from
Vermont to Washington and Canada. Dried mesquite pods can be
placed on any wood or charcoal and provide the same experience and
flavor without destroying the mesquite tree.
However, despite these alternatives, the demand from
restaurants and smoke houses for mesquite continues to grow. It is
probable that as long as the demand continues to be in place, the
debate regarding the fate of mesquite in the Sonoran Desert will
persist. LaDawn Wright, co-owner of Arizona Wright Cut Firewood in
Phoenix, claims: "There's a big demand from restaurants and smoke
houses [for mesquite]...if we don't have mesquite and if they're
dead set on getting it, they'll find it." When asked if much
progress has been made on the issue, Dr. Gary Nabhan stated:
"Progress is a relative thing. There are still a number of
border-trade issues that must be resolved, and the potential to
encompass other issues such as private property rights remains a
matter of dispute."
3. Related Cases
4. Draft author: Stephanie Haller
B. LEGAL Cluster
6. Discourse and Status: DISagreement and INPROGress
7. Forum and Scope: MEXICO and BILATeral
Legislation has been introduced in Mexico to limit mesquite
cutting. It is also being regulated by various organizations and
coalitions. To an extent, the issue could be considered regional
in scope because it is possible that the issue involves NAFTA as a
boundary and environmental issue.
8. Decision Breadth: 3
Mesquite trees are extracted from Mexico and sold mainly in
the United States and Canada. It can be assumed that NAFTA could
be either a solution or problem to the issue (see NAFTA) case). Namely, when asked what effect
NAFTA will have on this deforestation issue, Dr. Nabhan responded:
It will devastate both natural ecosystems and traditional
farming in Mexico. Even though Mexico has some very good
laws on the books and dedicated environmentalists at high
levels of government, most admit they haven't enough
watchdogs in the field with the right skills and
technical background to stem major disasters. A million
Mexican farmers and their families, it's predicted, will
be displaced due to competition with U.S. and Canadian
subsidized farmers. So 5 out of the 80 million Mexicans
will be displaced over the next decade-moved off their
land into cities, or to work as farm laborers for
corporate farms. Since these small farms sustain the
most crop diversity, their loss will have the most
devastating impact on crop diversity of any political
event since Cortes's conquest of Mexico.
9. Legal Standing: LAW
The legal standing is best described as a national law, which
was enacted in Mexico. The regulation which was passed in Mexico
in 1993 made it illegal to cut and export live ironwood, which is
cut as a by-product during mesquite extraction. There may be other
laws or regulations that are enacted at a level below the country
level in the United States, but to date, this has not occurred.
C. GEOGRAPHIC Clusters
9. Geographic Locations
a. Geographic Domain: North America [NAMER]
b. Geographic Site: Western North America [WNAMER]
c. Geographic Impact: MEXICO
10. Sub-National Factors: NO
11. Type of Habitat: DRY
Obviously, the type of habit that is involved in this case is
a desert. The Sonoran Desert is home to the mesquite tree, which
is being harvested to produce mesquite coal. More specifically,
it has been noted by Nabhan and Plotkin that the Sonoran Desert is
"characterized by the greatest diversity of growth forms of any
desert in the world." The Sonoran Desert of southern Arizona
also has:
the longest species list, including fan palms, saguaro
cacti, palo verde, and mesquite...Within this region are
hundreds of "sky islands" -- mountaintop habitats
isolated from one another and remarkably different in
composition, because the dry distances separating them
have allowed their biotic communities to evolve in
distinct ways...2,000-plus plant species thrive, nearly
10 percent of all the species found in the United
States."
In addition, some of the species in the region are endangered
or unique. Ancient species also exist, and some ironwood trees
have documented life spans of 1200 years.
D. TRADE Clusters
12. Type of Measure: Export Ban [EXBAN]
The law that was introduced in Mexico made it illegal to cut
and export live ironwood, which is cut as a by-product during
mesquite harvesting. Thus, it severely limits the ability to
export mesquite because it is difficult to cut mesquite without
harming the ironwood tree.
13. Direct vs. Indirect Impacts: DIRect
The impact on trade can be categorized as direct. It would by
itself substantially change, reduce, or possibly eliminate the
practice of mesquite harvesting.
14. Relation of Measure to Environmental Impact
A. Directly Related: YES WOOD
B. Indirectly Related: NO
C. Not related: NO
D. Process Related: YES DEFORestation
15. Trade Product Identification: MESQuite
The product type is mesquite wood. Coal is produced from the
wood in order to fulfill the growing demand for mesquite coal. The
conversion rate is determined to be relatively high. Estimates
suggest that anywhere of 170,000 hectares to 1 million acres of
mesquite and ironwood have been cleared in the Sonoran Desert. Dr.
Nabhan claims that ironwood is being rapidly depleted across an
area roughly equivalent to twice the size of Massachusetts. One
fifth of the total acreage depletion is being used explicitly for
the production of mesquite charcoal and at least 95 percent of
mesquite charcoal sold in the united States is removed from the
Sonoran Desert.
16. Economic Data
It is known that a bag of mesquite coal costs $10.25 at most
stores from Maine to Florida, but there is no data that
comprehensively measures the industry output or the employment
rates.
17. Impact of Measure on Trade Competitiveness: HIGH
The degree of change in competitiveness caused by measures to
reduce the acquisition of mesquite wood will be high. The demand
for mesquite coal has increased dramatically over the last decade.
Although other alternatives to the environmentally destructive
methods are available, it is unlikely that consumers and producers
will readily accept anything but mesquite coal.
18. Industry Sector: WOOD
19. Exporters and Importers: MEXICO and USA
Mexico and the United States are both exporters and importers
in this case. Some of the mesquite wood is obtained in a portion
of the Sonoran Desert in Arizona. It may be exported to Mexico.
Likewise, clandestine operations in Mexico surely export the
product to the United States. Thus, both countries could be
assigned to both categories. In reference to the last two
questions, economic data is not available.
E. ENVIRONMENTAL Clusters
20. Environmental Problem Type: HABITAT Loss
The environmental problem type is clearly one of
deforestation. In fact, this issue has been compared to the
deforestation problem in the Third World. If the current trend
persists, the entire ecosystem in the Sonoran Desert could crumble.
Current estimates suggest that ironwood is being rapidly depleted
across an area roughly equivalent to twice the size of
Massachusetts.
There is also a serious potential that this case will result
in substantial species loss in the region. As noted in the text,
endangered wildlife and plant species are threatened by mesquite
harvesting indirectly.
21. Name, Type, and Diversity of Species
Name: Prosopis/Olneya (Mesquite; ironwood)
Type: Plant/Tesota (Tree)
Diversity: 26,071 higher pants per 10,000 sq/km (Mexico)
It is estimated that over 500 species in the area are affected
by mesquite harvesting. As mentioned in the text, much of the
habitat in the Sonoran desert is either unique or endangered. The
saguaro cactus, for example, grows only in the Sonoran Desert in
Arizona, northern Mexico and a portion of southeastern California
near the Colorado river. Another endangered plant unique to the
Sonoran Desert is the boojum plant. Overall, there may be as many
as 500 diverse plants in any given area of the desert. Most of the
species in the desert depend on the ironwood and mesquite trees.
Removal of the trees and even the thinning of their branches can
kill cacti, vines, shrubs, and desert wildflowers by exposing them
to harsh sunlight and temperatures. The nectar, flowers, and
foliage of the trees also provide nutrients to the several species
of birds and mammals in the region. For example, the Sonoran
pronghorn antelope, desert bighorn, and masked bobwhite quail
depend on the ironwood and mesquite trees. A substantial number of
birds also depend on protection and nutrients provided by the
trees. According to statistics, 36 of the 82 birds that depend on
the flood-plain mesquite forest habitat have disappeared within the
last century. Finally, a cumulative 160 varieties of large
shrubs, medium-sized shrubs, small perennials, large cacti, medium-
sized cacti, small cacti, epiphytes, vines, grasses and ephemerials
depend the ironwood tree. Thus, the impact on the entire
eco-system will be substantial.
22. Resource Impact and Effect: HIGH and REGULatory
The resource depletion is high. As mentioned above, merely a
decade of mesquite harvesting has already affected the native
environment of the Sonoran desert. Over 500,000 acres were
harvested for mesquite wood over the last decade. The effect, or
how the action translates into environmental changes is best
described as structural. Indirect factors will prompt a slight
change in the production and consumption of mesquite wood.
23. Urgency and Lifetime: HIGH and 100s of years
It can be said that the problem has spiraled out of control
since mesquite coal has gained its popularity- which was only 10
years ago. In addition, some of the species, such as the saguaro
cactus are already on the verge of extinction and depend on the
trees for survival. Thus, the urgency is likely to be a minimum of
30 years. In reference to the direct species in the case, the
mesquite tree, it is estimated that is life span is over 50 years.
However, once removed, it takes roughly 50 to 100 years to grow
back. The ironwood has a life span of 1,200 years and the seedling
recruitment rate is 5-10 years per century.
24. Substitutes: LIKE
As noted in the description of the issue, there have been
similar products introduced in the argument to bypass the demand
for mesquite coal. A company called Eco-Char, for example, is
providing environmentally safe substitutes that provide the same
flavor as mesquite coal. It has also been proven that placing
mesquite beans on burning wood or coals provides a similar flavor.
Both serve as substitutes and alternatives to the problem. To
date, no other wood has been discovered that can provide the flavor
and technique of mesquite.
Apparently, mesquite that is harvested in southern portions of
Texas does not present an environmentally damaging situation. Yet
there is a common perception that mesquite from Texas is inherently
different from Mexican mesquite, and thus has not gained
recognition as an alternative. As noted, 95 percent of the
mesquite sold in the United States is extracted from the Sonoran
Desert.
In reference to the removal of ironwood as a by-product during
mesquite harvesting, there is no substitute available. Ironwood is
known for its famous carving potential by the Seri Indians and is
the second hardest wood after ligum vitae. There is no potential
substitute in the region.
F. OTHER Factors
25. Culture: YES
To a certain degree, culture is a related issue in this case.
For one, the American culture is responsible for the increased
demand in mesquite coal. It has become trendy and "chic" to dine
in mesquite-grilled restaurants or barbecue with the smokeless
coal. Although mesquite harvested in Texas is not environmentally
damaging and provides a similar taste, there is a growing public
perception that only Mexican-mesquite can provide the authentic
taste. As a result, it is likely that it will be difficult to
persuade American society to accept a substitute.
Likewise, the ironwood tree has been termed a "cultural
keystone" of the Sonoran Desert because the Seri Indians depend on
its existence for their livelihood. The Seri Indians use the wood
for carvings and other purposes. The use of ironwood by the Seri
Indians is not considered environmentally hazardous. Aside from
the fact that they obtain the wood in an environmentally safe
manner, they also do not consume large quantities. The practice
has safely existed for one-hundred years. Thus, the cultural
heritage of the Seri Indians is being jeopardized at the in order
to continue the production of mesquite coal.
26. Trans-Boundary Issues: YES
This issue affects the border between the United States and
Mexico. The Sonoran Desert includes portions of Mexico and the
United States. Others, however, feel NAFTA might intensify the
problem.
27. Rights:YES
A human rights issue may be involved in this case. It has
been mentioned that an Indian tribe depends on the ironwood for
carving purposes. As a result, these tribes actively protest
against any harvesting of mesquite which directly harms ironwood.
Likewise, many Native Americans in the area depend on certain
elements of the desert for survival and are now left to adjust to
a new lifestyle in areas where deforestation is taking place.
Clearly, the Native Americans that live in the desert (there are
some 12 reservations) are clearly most affected by the issue and
deforestation.
In a less direct manner, animal rights may be called into
question in this category. The endangered wildlife species such as
the Sonoran pronghorn antelope, desert bighorn and the masked quail
are being displaced in the process. Their very survival is
threatened indirectly in this case.
28. Relevant Literature
Eco-char, one of the companies that has provided an
alternative to mesquite grilling, provided substantial literature
in the form of flyers and advertisement called "Ironwood and
Mesquite Depletion Continues; Conservation International.
Nabhan and Carr, 87-92 for complete listings "Steps Up Effort,"
Media Update, September 8, 1993.
Gary Paul Nabhan and John L. Carr, eds., Ironwood: An Ecological
and Cultural Keystone of the Sonoran Desert, Occasional
Paper in Conservation Biology (No. 1, Washington D.C.:
Conservation International, April 1994).
Timothy Egan, "People in West Learning Limits of Vast Expanses:
Tourists Proving as Destructive to Landscape as Mining,
Logging," The Dallas Morning News, October 9, 1994: 1A.
Carol Goodstein, "Gary Nabhan; Interview," Omni 16/10, July
1994), 6.
David Hoye, "Down with the Flue: Fireplace Ban has Implications
for Southwest," The Phoenix Gazette, November 26, 1993,
A1.
Jane Kay, "Mesquite in Retreat: Move Afoot to Save Tree;
Sonoran Desert being Stripped for Chic Grilling Fuel,"
The Arizona Republic, April 9, 1993, A1.
Jim McCausland, "Saguaro country: Sonoran Desert, Arizona,"
Sunset, 192/2, February, 1994), 78-95.
"Mesquite Lovers Take Some Heat," Newsweek, April 19, 1993, 13.
Gary Paul Nabhan and John L. Carr, eds., Ironwood: An Ecological
and Cultural Keystone of the Sonoran Desert, Occasional
Paper in Conservation Biology (No. 1, Washington D.C.:
Conservation International, April 1994).
John Pacenti, "Ecology: Pollution, Ozone Depletion and the loss
of Sheltering "Nurse Plants are Among Possible Causes of
the Slow-Growing Desert Giants' Decline," Los Angeles
Times July 18, 1993, B5.
"Restoring a Thirsty Paradise: Southwest Desert Ecoregion,"
Sierra 79/2, March, 1994, 125.
"Save the Mesquite!" The Chile Pepper November/December,
1994, 8.
Jeff Strickler, "Ecologists Fired up about Saving Mesquite," Star
Tribune 8, May, 1993:, 1E.
References
[ENDNOTES WILL BE ADDED]
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