Peace Parks and Sustainable Development:

Tourism Implications for Transborder Conservation Policy – A case study of La Amistad International Peace Park in Central America

I. IDENTIFICATION

1. The Issue

The creative idea of Peace Parks provides an opportunity for international cooperation, particularly among developing or unstable countries. The number of Transboundary Protected Areas (TBPA) is on the rise and not only points to international communication and cooperation, but also points to potential value for the tourism and travel industries. To date, TBPAs, popularly known as “Peace Parks,” have served as places for peace and cooperation among neighboring nations – whether the relationship is one of harmony or tension. Particularly in Central America, there is a growing debate over whether peace parks and its creative concepts are good for tourism policy.

Peace parks have three primary functions: promoting peace, protecting and managing resources and environment, as well as preserving and enhancing cultural values, especially the protection of transboundary people (McNeil). The question driving the research for this study is about what makes the concept of peace parks successful. The notion of “Peace Parks” implies a protected area that promotes peace – as opposed to conflict. Nevertheless, TBPAs, now referred to popularly as Peace Parks, require a significant amount of cooperation between nations and therefore addressing differences – or, conflict – is just as important in the creation of Peace Parks as is promoting peace. Various research (Arias and Nations, Thorsell, Weed) points out how Peace Parks have reigned in varying degrees of new approaches, or a “new spirit” of regional cooperation and conflict resolution. Clearly, the formation of peace parks and the creation of new protected areas can pave the way for tourism growth in many developing nations. Particularly in a region fraught with conflict such as Central America, new approaches, such as the introduction of transfrontier and transborder conservation – have highlighted new paths for cooperation between nations.
Can good destination management practices lead to good policy decisions, and in turn relate to partnerships between nations and pave the path toward functional peace parks? The objective of this case study is to examine La Amistad Peace Park of Costa Rica and Panama to determine the significance of transborder conservation and its potential benefits for tourism development in the Central American Region. As Central America’s best known TRPA, we will discuss the successes and failures to date in the efforts of La Amistad, and draw conclusions and recommendations that may be critical for other peace parks forming in the region.

What role does La Amistad Peace Park play in tourism, as well as relationships between the participating countries? What policies and agreements led to its successful implementation and what implications does the case of La Amistad Peace Park have for the development of other peace parks in the Central American Region? As Central America’s oldest and largest international park, La Amistad is an established protected area that contains a wealth of biodiversity, and is attributed to fostering regional cooperation (and putting to end years of armed conflict in the region) as well as bring a tourism product as a means for economic development.

2. Description

he Presidents of Costa Rica and Panama jointly declared intent to establish an international park on March 3, 1979 – and in May of 1982, the two governments signed an agreement to create La Amistad International Peace Park, and it was reconfirmed on September 6, 1988. The uniqueness of the area and international interest in transborder conservation areas sparked a great deal of interested in the forming of the park. It is also noted that the history of developing La Amistad dates back to 1974 and the First Central American Meeting for the Conservation of Natural and Cultural Resources. Ultimately the park’s creation emphasized two important arguments: to conserve the natural and culture patrimony of a wider region and to serve as models for peace and friendship between neighboring countries.

Initially, the area totaled 221,000 ha of land – but today it has expanded to varying levels, at about 400,000 ha in land (approximately 200,000 in each country). There is great diversity in weather and terrain that it would be difficult to generalize. At the lower elevations on the Caribbean side, it is extremely wet, hot and humid. On the pacific side the weather is cool and damp near the entrance stations. Average temperatures are around 79 degrees Fahrenheit (26 degrees Celsius) on the lower east slopes but below freezing nights occur on the peaks and ridges. It is driest during February and March. The terrain varies from 475 feet (145 meters) on the Caribbean side, to 11,644 feet (3,549 meters) atop Cerro Kamuk.

La Amistad is the one of the largest and most remote parks in Central America. This area is also the most culturally and ethnically diverse region in Costa Rica. It is home to both a strong Afro-Caribbean culture as well as a majority of Costa Rica's indigenous population. It is surrounded by other parks and reserves for the indigenous Bribri, Ngobe, Chirripó, Tayni, Telire, Talamanca, Ujarras, Salitre and Abagra peoples.
La Amistad’s land is home to several different habitats: Tropical lowland wet forest (rain forest), tropical highland forest (cloud forest), sub alpine/alpine rainy páramo (tundra). There exists more virgin forest than any other park in the region, and a mixed oak forest characterizes much of the land. Scientists and researchers estimate that about two-thirds of the total plant species found in the region are in La Amistad and of these, many are endemic (about 30%) to the area or are threatened (20-30 variations) plants.

All of Central America’s major animal species are found in the park, such as the ocelot, spider monkey, tapir, and giant anteater. There are more than 350 species of birds such as the macaw, osprey, harpy eagle, and muscovy duck. Several altitudinal migratory birds (birds which migrate between different altitudes on the same mountain) such as the resplendent quetzal and the umbrella bird were recently identified as important conservation targets. At least a third of the bird species are North American migrants such as the wood thrush, prothonotary warbler, and the Magnolia warbler. The Talamanca Lowlands are also an important flyway for migrating raptors.

Definitions:
Protected Area - An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means.

Transboundary Protected Area (TBPA) - An area of land and/or sea that straddles one or more boundaries between states, sub-national units such as provinces and regions, autonomous areas and/or areas beyond the limits of national sovereignty or jurisdiction, whose constituent parts are especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed co-operatively through legal or other effective means.
Parks for Peace - Parks for Peace are transboundary protected areas that are formally dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and to the promotion of peace and co-operation.

3. Related Cases

As of 2001, there were over 161 examples of transborder conservation (Zbicz). Some familiar and recognized examples of peace parks include the following:

Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park (USA and Canada): In 1932, Waterton Lakes National Park (Alberta, Canada) and Glacier National Park (Montana, USA) came together to form the Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park – known today popularly as one of the first (if not the first) International Peace Park. Waterton-Glacier is rich in plant and mammal species as well as prairie, forest and alpine and glacial features. The governments of USA and Canada enacted a bill for their peace park with the purpose of establishing an “enduring monument of nature to the long-existing relationship of peace and goodwill…” Management of the peace park has benefited through its staff exchanges, joint publications, and international activities. In all, the park’s successful “experiment” of cooperation in transborder conservation is now an example for the 161+ transborder protected areas that followed.

Serengeti National Park/Masawa Game Reserve and Massai Mara (Tanzania and Kenya): This well-recognized protected area is considered to have the last intact plains ecosystem in Africa, and encompasses a wildlife population reputed as unparalleled on the continent. The Serengeti-Mara functions with joint cooperation in management of two to three million mammals in migration through the area. Although political differences have hindered resource monitoring programs, its popularity remains and the situation is improving. Transfrontier conservation areas such as this in Africa aim to contribute to the local economy and to nature conservation in a continent fraught with long term conflict and civil strife.

Other Peace Parks include: Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation and Resource Area (Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland); Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park (Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe); Cordillera del Condor Peace Transborder Reserve (Peru and Ecuador); Manas Wildlife Sanctuaries (Bhutan and India); Tatranski National Park (Poland and Czechoslovakia); and the Indonesia Tri-State Reserve for Peace and Nature (Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam).

4. Author and Date

Spring 2005

Daniel C. Chang
Master of Tourism Administration Candidate
Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management
George Washington University School of Business
600 21st Street NW
Washington 20052
dchang@gwu.edu,
www.danielchang.org

Additional Contact Info:
Daniel C. Chang
Geotourism/Sustainable Destinations Advocate
National Geographic Society
1145 17th Street NW
Washington, D.C. 20036
(202) 828-5464, fax (202) 775-6112
dchang@ngs.org

II. LEGAL CLUSTERS

5. Social:

The policies behind Peace Parks well influence the social and cultural values of a local population. Through introducing tourism as a new means of economic development, the local population may find new livelihoods through conservation. Other benefits through cooperation and TBPA development include infrastructure, development and planning, as well as a renewed appreciation of culture and natural resources. TBPAs can also help areas preserve indigenous knowledge, as well as reestablish ethnic customs and build confidence among border communities – as well as between national governments.

Nevertheless, there are also threats through TBPAs. Policy will have to address the fact that protected land will draw different development interests other than tourism (i.e. farming), and raises questions of compatibility. Furthermore, Duffy adds that Peace Parks illuminate the tangled politics of border regions as much as it seeks to remedy them: while ‘regulated’ globalization brings common solutions that are negotiated and administered for common problems, ‘unregulated’ globalization pressures set off a “dystopia” of illicit activity – poachers, narcotics and people traffickers are capable of subverting the system. Thus a paradox exists and highlights significant issues for TBPAs regarding the management of globalizing forces in the developing (and weakly administered) regions of the world.

Babadelis points out that it is essential to involve the indigenous stakeholders and increase communication and participation from this group. While there will be important social and cultural advances from the peace park, it will be an important factor in poverty reduction. For Arias, La Amistad is a chance “to reduce poverty, to supply drinking water...we have to use our resources to protect nature …for coming generations.” In other words, La Amistad stands for intergenerational health and the opportunity to address social inequalities.

6. Environmental:

There are several environmental benefits to peace parks: they improve the survival rates of plant and animal populations, prevent the spread of animal diseases, and allow genetic material of plants and wildlife to pass between protected populations (Arias and Nations). The concept, at base, is that the larger the habitat, the greater the biodiversity – there will be more species, plant and animal, in a region through conservation of a large area. Protecting areas across national borders expands a preserved habitat and helps to maintain biological diversity (as opposed to several small, unconnected areas). Therefore certain populations will less likely become extinct

A number of research and reports strongly believe that Central America’s search for integrated cures for is various environmental ills warrants to be high on the agenda of policy makers, despite the region’s traditionally slight interest in natural resource issues. Weed (1994) echoes the observation that conflict resolution may be a byproduct of environmental cooperation. Several reports (such as the Brundtland Report) point out that there is an explicit connection between military threats, international cooperation, and the environment – a relationship that applies to the Central American Region. The political leaders of Central America will have to identify how much international conservation projects will promote the peace process and security in the region.

7. Economic:

While transborder conservation implies shared benefits, it also implies shared costs – shared added costs. In the case of La Amistad, lack of funding was one of its major obstacles and finding funding from the participating governments and the right donor agencies are essential. Several agencies came together to fund La Amistad.

Peace Parks have great potential to bring important economic benefits and incentives to the region. There is great potential in tourism development, as admission fees as well as international interest in travel has increased, bringing more visitors to the area and ultimately contributing economically to the park. Through the conservation of natural resources brings a renewed use of flora, a new application of agriculture, forestry and more. Tourism is considered by many as a non-consumptive form of economic incentive, as the protected area is a cost-effective method to bring economic benefits.

In principle all conservationists believe the most effective way to safeguard natural resources is to use them in sustainable ways to alleviate poverty, and certain policies are needed to help address these economic concerns.

8. Other:

La Amistad’s success can also be translated into more benefits and implications – political and institutional, as protected areas in the Central American region have aimed to ease tensions between countries and have substituted for warfare. There is great potential for transborder conservation to neutralize an area of possible conflict.

9. Suggested Interventions:

At its core, La Amistad Peace Park is recognized to be the most successful in the Central American region – and its success is much attributed to the political goodwill between Costa Rica and Panama – and this sustained political will has greatly helped its success of transborder conservation. La Amistad is a model to the Central American region on how the concept of peace parks creates a link between environmental protection, international cooperation, and the struggle against poverty in developing countries.

III. POLICY IMPACTS

10. Discourse and Status/Policy Issue:

At base the main policy factors and issues focus on three main points:

• Political good will
• Sustained funding for conservation of land
• Involvement of international agencies (international NGOs or lending agencies

11. Forum and Scope/Existing Policy Framework:

Existing Framework:

On Costa Rica’s side, the government of Costa Rica formally organized the management of areas surrounding its portion of La Amistad by first declaring a 600,000+ ha biosphere reserve (UNESCO World Heritage site) covering most of the Talamanca range. The Costa Rican sector of La Amistad International Peace Park is a portion of the reserve. In 1988, a coordinating commission (CCRBA) of representatives of the major institutions having jurisdiction over land use in that area was created. This commission was presided over by the Minister of Natural Resources, Energy and Mines. The Ministry of National Planning and Economic Policy (MIDEPLAN) was also involved to integrate regional planning.

On Panama’s side, much of the area was privately held, prior to the park’s establishment. After it was acquired, the Panama sector is now managed by INRENARE, a public natural resource management agency, with support of an environmental NGO: ANCON. The Ministry of Planning and Economic Policy (MIPPE) facilitated the process in which institutions and management activities were created and initiated.

Forum and Scope:

• International: Much of La Amistad’s success is through the funding of international NGOs. While the funding is critical, international policies and interests must be careful not to interfere with national and regional and local policies. Support is critical at the international level, but it is important to keep the international role a supportive and capacity building one, as opposed to a decision making one.
• National: Issues of national sovereignty will have to be addressed in the existing policies. The countries in the region have many different interests from economic to security interests – and furthermore there are significant political and economic inequalities among these neighbors.
• Regional: The Central American region has seen direct benefits through transborder conservation. Through cooperation there has been an alleviation of interregional conflict, and Peace Parks have been hailed as a new solution to resolve conflict. For example, in La Amistad is an example to the entire region of Central America for international communication. The park is considered a model for international conservation and is a large reason for the establishment of the current other 5 peace parks, as well as the interest for more international conservation efforts.
• Local: All studies point out that the success of TBPAs start and stop at the local level. Without local participation and interest, the peace park process will fail. The policies need to translate benefits directly to the local communities as well as directly involve as much of the local level as possible. For example, in the case of La Amistad, research points out the growing need to address concerns and communication between the many indigenous communities that live within the protected area. The park’s boundaries are unclear and many have even lost lives trying to protect illegal hunting or poaching within the protected area. (UNESCO 1990)

12. Decision Breadth/Stakeholders/Policy Actors:

The stakeholders involved in peace park development ranges from international to local levels: donors and donor agencies; ministries of agriculture, environment, and finance; tourism professionals; private sector advocacy groups; NGO actors; local leaders and individuals. All will have influence and impact on policy.

Currently, Panama manages the park on its own side of the border, and Costa Rica manages land on its side of the park. A joint management plan has not been created, although there is a good amount of coordination and communication between the two countries. In general the land is managed in natural zones, cultural zones, forest management zones, and recovery zones. Specific to the park there is a small staff of fewer than 10 persons staffed as rangers. Many other staffed rangers and managers, about 30 from each country, are part or full time employees to monitor and protect the protected areas in their respective countries.

13. Legal Standing/Legal Regulatory Framework/Suggested Policy Intervention:

La Amistad Peace Park is in good legal standing and will need to address many minor issues – but for the most part it is regarded as the most successful model of transborder conservation in Central America. Nevertheless, it is clear through the case of La Amistad that bilateral or multilateral agreements are not the only factor in determining successful management and planning over the long term. Furthermore, there still exist minor conflicts that need to be addressed. Key opportunities for La Amistad’s current state of success and potential for the future include important consideration of the following: intergovernmental agreements; geography (accessibility); political and economic climate; official international and UN designations (for funding); and involvement of NGOs. One potentially effective policy action would be to “promote a steady flow of resources for land acquisition, infrastructure enhancement, education, institution building, and local initiatives” (Weed 1994). Furthermore, assistance from international NGOs for financial and technical aspects of support will be critical in order to continue La Amistad’s example of peace and international cooperation. One instance of financial support that is very much needed in La Amistad is lodging infrastructure for visitors. Currently no lodging exists and furthermore, no paved roads, no waste management system, and other basic infrastructure for protected areas could significantly aid La Amistad – particularly in the context of tourism, but more importantly in the broader sense of development.

There are some policy and planning considerations that La Amistad needs to consider in order to improve and progress. First is that it will need to realize that long term and large scale physical change regularly occurs in Central America, and landscape and natural resources may change due to flooding, unstable debris, landslides, hurricanes, earthquakes – all which can force migration or deplete resources, housing, jobs, infrastructure, and services. While preparing for the worst, La Amistad will also need to prepare for the future: including building hydroelectric dams, oil and gas pipelines, roads, transmission corridors, and refineries. Additionally, it will also require a great deal of funds and financial planning for the park. In a financial context – many donor agencies will have their own agendas and interests, and it will be important for La Amistad’s policymakers to find common ground between local stakeholders and outside interests so that project proposals succeed, and an integrated strategy can be implemented. Currently one of the biggest challenges to La Amistad is to move beyond communication to collaboration. Information sharing is at a basic level, and although the land has been protected, no joint management plan, nor plans to provide infrastructure and access to the park has been implemented, and for the most part, each country still manages its own territory. Costa Rica and Panama do not put forth a united front and there is no regional planning agency to bring the two countries together.

IV. TRADE CLUSTERS

14. Type of Measure:

• Land conservation and protected areas/ biosphere reserves. Flora and fauna protection, migratory species protection, indigenous culture protection.
• Tourism arrivals and receipts via conserved and protected areas.

15. Relation of Trade Measure to Environmental/Tourism Impact:

a. Directly Related to Product: The protected area and its natural resources are important to inventory and carefully manage in terms of its use. Careful and planned use of its resources will sustain livelihoods as well as protect the land. Also, good management practices and land use plans will also be essential to manage development and protect the overall environment, which is the main product of La Amistad.

b. Indirectly Related to Product: Additional methods of economic gain are introduced as a product of land conservation – which essentially changes the means of livelihoods for many living in the area. There will be new knowledge about value-added products, conservation and agricultural methods and strategies. As tourism is developed, receipts through visitors drawn to the area and natural resources will also have an impact (both positive and negative).

c. Not Related to Product: Increase in infrastructure is a clear necessity to facilitate monitoring and protection, as well as manage carrying capacity for potential visitors. A great deal of international aid has gone to infrastructure and planning.

d. Related to Process: Cooperation between governments is fragile, especially in the Central American region. The greater the cooperation, the better-managed La Amistad will be for all its stakeholders. Greater cooperation may also lead to better relationships between citizens in each country. The cultural rift between the two countries is a significant obstacle to overcome in communication levels – and La Amistad provides a platform to discuss these sociocultural and socioeconomic discrepancies.

16. Trade Product Identification/Trade and Services:

Protected areas and conservation, Parks and Recreation/Tourism, Donor Aid, and Government Aid.

17. Economic Data:

Tourism is considered second only to agriculture as Central America’s main source of economic development (not including remittances). Clearly, in order to address the issue of rural development and employment, it will also be important to create new economies that arise through land conservation – a plan and perspective that will be essential to the developing economies of Central America.

In 2001, more than two-thirds of visitors experienced National Parks in Costa Rica and the numbers are growing by about 15% each year. Considering that the numbers of visitors to La Amistad are still in the hundreds annually (600-700), it will be important to incorporate tourism into the park’s plan. Tourism’s draw and an increased focus on tourism planning and policies certainly hold promise for La Amistad – as there is nothing but potential to grow for this protected area. A glance at the labor statistics highlights this promise: in 2000, the tourism sector alone generated over 200,000 direct and indirect jobs in rural areas for both Costa Rica and Panama, representing 15% and 18% of the labor force, respectively. (INDESA)

18. Impact of Trade Restriction:

Possible illicit activity – poaching, gambling, smuggling – will need policy consideration.

19. Industry Sector:

Public Lands and Tourism (Parks and Recreation, Protected Areas)

Although tourism is not fully developed in policy and planning, it will be important to include tourism into management planning for La Amistad, to provide alternative sources of economy and labor for the rural community.

20. Exporters and Importers:

Conservation groups and advocates, tourists, tour operators, indigenous communities, accommodations, technology, health, communications and other infrastructure.

V. MACRO/ENVIRONMENT CLUSTERS/TOURISM POLICY CLUSTERS

21. Environmental Problem Type/ Environmental Aspects:

It is important to also measure the impact of projects that are implemented in protected areas. Policy can help to monitor and manage its environmental consequences. Large construction projects can bring roads, which can open the primary forest to colonization destruction. Reservoirs can inundate vast expanses of land, wiping out human communities, wildlife habitat, and even archeological remains.

In La Amistad, almost 90% of its known plant species are found in this protected area – 30% of which are endemic to the park. La Amistad boasts plants such as sweet cedar, small cypress, silk cotton, black oak, white oak, dwarf madrono, and batamba. Several animal species are located in La Amistad including the ocelot, the black-handled spider monkey, the Baird's tapir and the giant anteater. Close to 500 species of birds such as the great green macaw, osprey, harpy eagle, and muscovy duck have been protected through La Amistad’s establishment. Additionally, altitudinal migratory birds such as the quetzal and the umbrella can benefit from La Amistad. The region is an important flyway for migrating raptors, and at least one-third of the bird species are North American migratory birds. The park shelters 60% of vertebrate and invertebrate animals in the two countries.

The best way for Peace Parks to safeguard natural resources is to use them in a sustainable manner, such as promoting best agricultural practices near each area and creating useful policies that consider the environmental impact. For La Amistad, this will need to include the many indigenous communities living within the protected area. The use of international organizations to facilitate communication between countries will also be helpful, financially and strategically, for Central America.

22. Resource Impact and Effect:

Natural resources will be conserved and through good stewardship of the protected areas will also bring about economic benefits through tourism, as well as added infrastructure necessary needed to maintain the industry’s impacts. Furthermore, while it is clear that land conservation has led to greater numbers of species – plant and animal, it will be important to examine closely the use of natural resources.

La Amistad has received economic benefits through protecting and conserving the watershed to produce electricity. On the Sixaola river, a major river flowing through the park and the border between Costa Rica and Panama – Costa Rica’s Institute of Electricity has proposed hydroelectric dams, where it is possible to build no fewer than 10 hydroelectric projects in the Rio Sixaola watershed (OAS/CI, 1990). In terms of resource conservation – it is clear that hydroelectric power is a main justification for conserving forests, particularly due to the large protected areas in Central America. Through multinational parks like La Amistad, which embrace immense forestlands and sustain watersheds that supply water to reservoirs – natural resources can be conserved and used sustainably in a manner that can also have positive economic impact.

23. Urgency and Lifetime/Urgency and Policy Review:

As La Amistad has proven its success in conflict resolution in Central America, other nations in the region should seriously consider transborder conservation policy formation and implementation. Willingness by the governments to sacrifice centralized control of remote border regions and share responsibility for long-term management of natural resources is still tenuous, however. More of these protected areas in the region begin to encompass ecological and cultural heritage sites that have been preserved for centuries, mostly to the credit of thriving indigenous communities (Girot). The case of La Amistad illustrates there is a good chance that joint management ventures and new mechanisms involving central governments and local communities will need to be in place to address its challenges (i.e. claims for regional autonomy or self rule by border populations). It will be up to local governments, indigenous communities, chambers of commerce, and NGOs to assume more progressive roles, as they are beginning to do, in territorial administration. With these new sets of management and preparation approaches, the region’s development will be better prepared to deal with policy and development regarding natural resources, water supply, land tenure issues, and other systems (Girot).

24. Substitutes/Alternative Policies: n/a

Alternative policies for Peace Parks today include militarized patrols in defense of border security, such as the Korean Demilitarized Zone. While far less than ideal, this has preserved the zone environmentally for nearly 50 years – as “both Korean governments realize that the land is worth more if developed for long-term sustainable use” (Smith and Rosenbaum 2004). While the “political tension between the two Koreas is much stronger than that between Central American and African countries before they formed transborder peace parks. The environment is a benign, seeming apolitical issue on which the Koreans could possibly agree,” states Westing (in Smith and Rosenbaum 2004). Comparatively, in the case of La Amistad, while political tension exists but not as intense, militarized patrols are highly unlikely, but nevertheless not completely ruled out either. While issues of the environment, as well as land and natural resource conservation have served as an icebreaker for Costa Rica and Panama, failure to create a joint management plan combined with continued delay of taking greater steps to collaborate on La Amistad’s future suggests that tension could escalate and risk the health and security of the park.

VI. Other Factors:

25. Culture:

On a large scale, the culture of conservation and sustainable development is growing at a rapid rate – and the surge of TBPAs is a visible sign that these goals are increasingly being pursued around the world. As TBPAs increase, there will also be an increase of negative effects, notably the free flow of persons across borders. There are serious environmental concerns as well as cultural and social concerns that policy will need to address. The main issue in La Amistad will need to address the role and livelihoods of the indigenous communities within the protected area and how conservation can materialize into development and sustainable livelihoods for its people. To neglect these stakeholders will further polarize the efforts between the two governments – but nevertheless, the clash of cultures between Costa Rica and Panama is something that may take time to overcome. Hopefully with new shared sustainable economies and livelihoods that implement sustainable uses of the land, perhaps such as environmentally friendly coffee cultivation – positive steps can be made towards international cooperation at all levels.

26. Trans-Boundary Issues:

As the issues of Peace Parks and La Amistad are transboundary in nature, all transboundary issues have been addressed in a number of contexts throughout this case study. Most importantly, the case of La Amistad highlights that there is a significant need for infrastructure – which will help not only tourism but more importantly overall sustainable development. La Amistad is an example of good communication and information sharing between countries and has received a great deal of interest and funding from international NGOs. However, this in-depth case study finds that there are major shortcomings to the park. Using Zbicz’s typology to measure transboundary cooperation, La Amistad has communication, but lacks collaboration – and also has on average about 700 visitors a year (< 2/day). Studies show there is room for growth and great promise: 200,000 jobs have been created indirectly and directly through land conservation, and local citizens are forming groups to exchange info and create projects.

27. Rights:

There is great tension between stakeholders and the struggle over who has the right to make rules and institutions while balancing needs for conservation, development, and sustainability. Particularly in border regions where land issues are more than sensitive – property rights and land reform laws may be important to address. Arias, in an account from Babadelis’s report, notes the need for NGOs to aid in purchasing land from those holding it privately – but reflects on the difficulty in realizing this goal

VII. Conclusions

28. Policy Implications:

TBPAs can succeed if there is political good will and commitment on both sides of the border, from top to bottom – national levels to local levels. As in the case of the heads of states in La Amistad, when policymakers perceive TBPAs as another arm of diplomacy, then transborder cooperation will have more of a chance to succeed and issues of national sovereignty will also find their solution.

The Peace Park concept highlights the link between local communities and international organizations – and suggests that this connection effectively bypasses the state-run central government structures in the partnerships. This “sub-state and supra-state partnership” as Duffy highlights is also acknowledged by Van Amerom: each situation clearly introduces risks for all nations involved. Nevertheless, in the case of La Amistad, there is still opportunity for Costa Rica and Panama to maintain binational control, along with the added advantage of assistance from the international community as a result of their transborder conservation efforts. There have been discussions between the countries that have included the Organization of American States (OAS) and Conservation International (CI) regarding the use of joint guard patrols inside both countries’ territories.

TBPAs can influence international boundaries, particularly by removing a barrier to halt all negative activity, which can spill over into other management mechanisms a state may have in place (agricultural, health, etc.). A balanced compromise between all actors will be key: a concession in one interest will most likely result in a gain in another interest – as the benefit is ultimately intended for local community development. As evidenced by La Amistad, the two countries have cooperated on various levels of the park. Local citizens in both countries have become involved through forming groups, such as a citizens ecology group, to exchange ideas and information and create economic development projects. Efforts like this healthy exchange of information are certainly significant advances in cooperatively managing an international peace park.

Finally, the case of La Amistad addresses the important issue of sovereignty by approaching its policies and practices using a regional perspective. The countries do not regard the park to blur their boundaries and threaten national sovereignty; rather, through protecting natural resources alongside their common boundary, La Amistad is an example of how other Central American nations can find regional solutions to environmental problems. Cooperation at this level and in this context illustrates how international peace parks provide a platform for countries to coordinate their national activities and interests for shared economic, political, and environmental benefits.

29. Recommendations:

The debate over TBPAs is a highly complex debate that spans issues of scale, policy, economics, environment, culture, globalization, power, and more. Several scholars contribute interesting studies and analyses that consider how TBPAs affect space not in a physical sense, but also identify how actors from all scales are impacted and how the roles of all these actors will change and adapt to each circumstance. It is clear from their research that each situation is unique and highly complex – and signal that the introduction of TBPAs clearly changes the dynamic of power relationships for all actors, and particularly for the state where there is great potential for their role to swing from highly integrated to marginalized (but at base, the need for the state to be involved!). As policymakers look to increase the overall economy of Central America it will be important to consider valuable options such as public-private partnerships which can greatly generate infrastructure much needed for tourism as well as improve the well being of its citizens.

Additionally, policies did not make important considerations necessary for tourism as an integral function to transborder conservation. Tourism may not be the main point of interest for these governments, but providing the necessary infrastructure will need to include planning and management for visitors to the park – and with this infrastructure, development of peace parks will find new ways to increase levels of cooperation. Planning for tourism is a significant platform to implement new projects together while addressing needs and concerns on both sides of the border. As more studies are conducted, it will be practical and advantageous to incorporate tourism plans into the mix. Many of these parks would receive more visitors with policy and planning that addresses any of the following usual suspects of tourism: access and signage, linkages from parks to tourism enterprises and the outside works, marketing, and more. Ultimately, it will be extremely important to include an environmental and geographic plan, in addition to a realistic business plan. This certainly will require international assistance, technically and financially, but all stakeholders will need to carefully incorporate tourism.

Ultimately, the key will be to find basic solutions to problems shared by border regions, and likewise, find basic common improvements that will benefit the area on the whole. Beyond multilateral agreements that already exist in the case of La Amistad, one policy consideration or action can include promotion of a steady flow of resources for land acquisition, education, institution building, infrastructure enhancement, and local initiatives. The Central American Commission for Environment and Development (CCAD) has received support but will need more substantial financial and technical assistance if it is to aid in this role. In all, the success of peace parks and transborder conservation will depend on the extent to which local communities are truly and consistently engaged by the governments and international community in the process of sustainable development (Weed).

In sum, policy implications from a case study of La Amistad International Peace Park highlight the potential for tourism as entry point for growth in Peace Parks. It is clear that protected areas have great potential and value as tourism attractions, and application and incorporation of tourism policy to transborder conservation will address key threats to cooperation and conservation. This case study of La Amistad reveals that conservation can have a positive role in opening up new paths of communication between nations anywhere in the world. Tourism can serve as a complementary platform to address environmental conservation, new levels of international collaboration, and local economic development. While the solution of conservation as a means to abate conflict is important – we also recognize that the best solutions are ones that are economically sustainable. The best way for peace parks to safeguard natural resources is to use them in a sustainable manner, such as promoting best agricultural practices near each area. Additionally, the use of international organizations to facilitate communication between countries will also be helpful, financially and strategically. Furthermore, there is a specific need for tourism specialists from international community for technical support, as well as institutional arrangements that include stakeholders in the planning process – by incorporating social ties for locally managed conservation and sustainability. Finally, a destination management plan is needed to apply and incorporate practical environmental, geographical, and business plans. This study manifests that Peace Parks are an indispensable platform for international environmental and social sustainability. It is evident that a strong case can be made for interregional cooperation in creating transborder parks – and as a result, each Peace Park will not only provide a platform to address disparity and poverty alleviation, but also protect resources and economies, and enhance the tourism product of the region.

30. Relevant Literature

Arias, Oscar and Nations, James D. (1992). “A Call for Central American Peace Parks.” In Sheldon, Annis, Ed. Poverty, Natural Resources, and Public Policy in Central America. Washington, D.C.: Overseas Development Council. Pg 43-58.

Babadelis, Paul Gregory. (2003). “La Amistad International Peace Park: what part does it play in the peace process?” Masters Thesis: Department of Resource Development, Michigan State University.

Castro, J., Ramirez, M., Saunier, R, and Meganck, R. (1995). “The La Amistad Biosphere Reserve”. In M., Saunier, R, and Meganck, R, Eds. Conservation of Biodiversity and the New Regional Planning. Organization of American States (OAS) and The World Conservation Union (IUCN).

DeVillers, Bertus. (1999). Peace Parks – the way ahead: international experience and indicators for southern Africa. Human Sciences Research Council. Pretoria.

Duffy, Rosaleen. (2001). “Peace Parks: The Paradox of Globalization.” Geopolitics. London: Vol. 6. No. 2 (Autumn 2001) Pg. 1-26.

Girot, Pascal O. (2005). “Border Regions and Transborder Conservation in Central America.” In Ganster and Lorey, Eds. Borders and Border Politics in a Globalizing World. Oxford, UK: SR Books. Pg. 247-267.

INDESA. (2003). Tourism Report. November 6 Report by the Republic of Panama. Panama.

Kliot, Nurit. (2002). “Transborder Peace Parks: The Political Geography of Cooperation (and Conflict) in Borderlands.” In Schofield, Newman, Drysdale, and Brown, Eds. The Razor’s Edge: International Boundaries and Political Geography. Great Britain: Kluwer Law International. Pg. 407-436.

Mill, R.C. and Morrison, A.M. (1985). The Tourism System: An Introductory Text. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall International.

McNeil, Richard J. (1990). “International Parks for Peace.” In Thorsell, Jim (Ed.), Parks on the Borderline: Experience in Transfrontier Conservation. IUCN. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pg. 23-38.

OAS/CI. 1990. Estrategia para el Desarrollo Institucional de la Reserva de la Biósfera "La Amistad." A report to the Government of Costa Rica. San Jose, Costa Rica. MIRENEM/MIDEPLAN.

Singh, Jaidev. (1999). Study on the Development of Transboundary Natural Resource Management Areas in Southern Africa – Global Review: Lessons Learned. Biodiversity Support Program. Washington DC, USA.

Smith, G. and Rosenbaum, A. (2004). “The case for an ecotourism peace park and cultural heritage corridor in the Korean Demilitarized Zone.” In Diamantis, D. and Geldenhuys, S., Eds. Ecotourism: Management and Assessment. Thomson Learning, UK.

Thorsell, Jim. (1990). Parks on the Borderline: Experience in Transfrontier Conservation. IUCN. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.

Thorsell, Jim. (1990). “Through Hot and Cold Wars, Parks Endure.” Natural History. Vol. 99, Issue 6, Pg. 59-60.

UNEP. Protected Areas Programme: World Heritage Sites: Talamanca Range – La Amistad Reserves. www.unep-wcmc.org/protected_areas/data/wh/talamanc.html

Weed, T.J. (1994). “Central America’s Peace Parks and Regional Conflict Resolution.” International Environmental Affairs. Hanover, NH: Vol. 6, Pg. 175-90.

Van Amerom, Marloes. (2002). “National sovereignty & transboundary protected areas in Southern Africa.” GeoJournal. Netherlands: Vol. 58, No. 4, Pg. 265-273

Zbicz, Dorothy Calhoun. (1999.) Transboundary cooperation in conservation: a global survey of factors influencing cooperation between internationally adjoining protected areas. Dissertation-Thesis, Duke University