Tourism and its Impacts on the Environment

by Stephanie A. Thullen

June 28th, 1996

     RESEARCH PAPER NUMBER:   X8
     RESEARCH PAPER MNEMONIC: XTOUR
     RESEARCH PAPER NAME:     Tourism and Trade

     DRAFT AUTHOR:            Stephanie Thullen


  
I.  ABSTRACT

       Tourism and the environment have a very complex and
interdependent relationship. Tourism is one of the largest
industries in today's world economy and is a great source of  
foreign exchange for many developing countries, whose major assets
are their natural resources.  At the same time, it is the
environmental quality of a place that will determine the success of
the tourism industry, since it is the principal attraction.  There
have been disagreements on whether tourism in beneficial or harmful
to the environment, and this paper lays out the arguments for both
sides, as well as analyzing the issue with several case studies. 
This analysis will illustrate that tourism, if unplanned and
unregulated, can   be extremely harmful to the environment, and
therefore needs a better, more sustainable   alternative that
involves the local population in the planning and management of
tourism.   

  
II. ISSUE BACKGROUND

       Many scholars believe that tourism can be actually
beneficial to the environment.   Comparing it to other industries,
tourism does seem to be much less harmful than other   industries,
such as manufacturing.  It can be argued that since climate,
vegetation, wildlife   and geology play a large role in attracting
tourism, the industry has a stake in the preservation of the
environment on which it is based.  At the same time, tourism
provides the economic means with which to do it. (1)  There is
evidence from the United States and Europe that tourism has
promoted restoration and preservation of historic sites. (2) 
Tourism has also encouraged conservation of natural resources in  
places like Africa by establishing national parks and reserves.  In
the case of these poorer countries, tourism brings in much needed
foreign exchange, as well as employment opportunities, demand for
local products and improvement in the local infrastructure    (3).

       It is clear from these arguments how tourism and the
environment benefit and   depend on each other.  However, this does
not take into account the carrying capacity of   these tourist
areas.  The notion of carrying capacity means that there are limits
to the use of   natural resources.  The environment will probably
be damaged if overused, and if the   limits of its carrying
capacity are surpassed, the ecosystem will loose its sustainability
and   "be damaged or destroyed for a long time, if not forever."
(4)  Since most   countries at their first stages of tourism
development had no control or proper planning for   tourism, the
carrying capacities of their environment were not taken into
account and   thereby abused.  This is the case for most developing
countries in the present time, and   therefore, most scholars argue
that, there is most likely a conflicting rather that a symbiotic  
relationship between tourism and the environment.
    
       The negative impacts of tourism on the environment can be
analyzed in different   ways.  One of them looks at the specific
elements of the ecosystem of the tourist locale.    For instance,
tourism can a have detrimental effect on vegetation.  The
collection of plants   or careless use of fire can destroy
plantlife; littering causes changes in soil nutrients;   human and
vehicular traffic affects both the soil and the vulnerability of
plants.  The   activities can cause changes in the "percentage
cover, species diversity, growth rates and   age structures, and
habitat diversity." (5)  Tourism can also have an effect on air  
and water quality.  Air pollution can be attributed to the
congestion of tourist vehicles in   resort areas. (6)  There can
also be pollution of lakes, rivers and oceans caused by large  
quantities of waste material and inadequately treated sewage from
tourist facilities and   from oil spills from recreational
vehicles. (7)  This pollution can transmit   diseases such as
typhoid, cholera and hepatitis through seafood and can also   cause
eutrophication by increasing the nutrients in the water. 
Eutrophication causes   fluctuations in the oxygen supply and
distribution, which affects all aquatic life. (8)      
       Wildlife can also be adversely affected by tourism.  Much of
the industry itself is   geared towards animal watching or
photography, as it is evident from the increase in   popularity of
safaris in African national parks and the increasing number of
tourists   traveling to Antarctica.  By intruding on the animals'
natural lives, tourism can disrupt   feeding and breeding patterns,
and sometimes can even force the relocation of wildlife.   (9) 
Littering by tourists attracts animals to tourist areas in the
parks and alters the   animals' natural habitats. (10)  The
creation of reserves and national parks may also bring   about
overpopulation of some species. (11)  The increasing demand of
wildlife souvenirs   induces a parallel increase in poaching, since
the monetary rewards become greatly   attractive to the local
population. (12)
    
       Resort development can cause harm to the environment on
which it is located as   well.  First of all, it may cause
architectural pollution, a condition where resort facilities  
clash with the native surroundings and architecture.  Additionally,
coastal resort   developments are often unplanned and unregulated
causing sprawls along the coastline.  A   similar situation occurs
in mountain areas, where tourism development evolves into  
"ribbon" development. (13)  The infrastructures themselves are
unable to handle   the numbers and intensity of tourism, which
causes "supply failures, pollution and health   hazards." (14) 
Resort development causes segregation of local residents from the 
 resort area, as well, and brings about probably the most serious
consequence of resort   development, which is traffic congestion.
(15)

       Another way, and probably the better way, to analyze the
impacts of tourism on the   environment is to look at how tourism
affects certain ecosystems.  Impacts on each of the   previous
components affects the entire system.  For instance, clearing
plantlife for the sake   of tourism "disturbs" wildlife and reduces
habitats.  Without the protection of the entire   ecosystem, the
survival of an individual species cannot take place. (16)  And
since   these components and ecosystems are interconnected not just
locally, but globally, affecting   one of these may disrupt another
in a different part of the region or even the world. (17)     For
this paper I will focus on coastal-marine ecosystems since they are
the most   popular environments for tourism. (17)  To allow for
better analysis, these will be broken   down into marine
ecosystems, beaches, and small island ecosystems.  

       Marine ecosystems suffer from the waste disposal by hotels,
littering by tourists,   fuel seepage from ships and other boat
traffic. (18)  The European marine ecosystem   has probably been
the worst affected because it is an inland sea, thus it has a
longer self-cleaning   process due to the limited tide. (19) (See
 Mediterranean case).  Out of all the
components   affected in this ecosystem, coral reefs are the most 
vulnerable.  Reefs can be harmed by trampling   from scuba divers
and snorkelers, untreated sewage dumped from hotels or the resort
cities    themselves, and many developing countries use coral for
construction of hotels and roads. (20)

       Although stronger than most coastal ecosystems, beaches
suffer from tourism   development as well.  The construction of
hotels and roads destroys dunes and beaches,   causing severe
environmental consequences, such as erosion, which in turn induces
more   environmental problems  (see Bali
and Jamaica cases).  Beaches also suffer
through their   displacement in order to build marinas, piers and
docks. (21)  People themselves can   cause damage by littering and
scaring away birds. (22) 

       Small island ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to
tourism development   because of their fragility and shortage of
space and freshwater.  Space scarcity results from   the
construction of tourism in the coastal areas, which competes with
local residents'   needs, like agriculture.  There is also
competition for water between the "local communal   and
agricultural sector and the rapidly expanding tourism sector." (23) 
With small   islands, wildlife and plants suffer more as well
because of the islands' small area and   isolation, thus there is
a higher rate of extinction of island species. (24)

       To better illustrate the issue of tourism and its impact on
the environment, the   remainder of this paper will analyze case
studies dealing with tourism in coastal and   marine environments,
in particular, small island ecosystems, and will provide as well a 
 policy analysis of these issues.  The cases will analyze tourism
in the Mediterranean Sea;   Bali, Indonesia; Cancun, Mexico;
Jamaica;  and the island of Tobago.   

  
III.  CASE STUDIES

 
Mediterranean Pollution and
Tourism
 
 

       Tourism is one of the principal contributors of pollution in
the Mediterranean Sea   and as the numbers of tourists increase,
the problems worsen since not only does the   ecosystem have to
support more and more people, but the resort areas aggravate the  
problem by overbuilding in order to support and attract even more
tourists.  This increases   the excess garbage and sewage that is
dumped directly into the sea and nearby rivers, due   to the lack
of a regulatory system.  Several laws and initiatives have
implemented in order   to protect the Mediterranean Sea from
further degradation, including the Blue Plan, which   calls for new
development models based on regional cooperation, more attention
paid to   the effects of development on the environment, and better
understanding on environment   and development issues in the
Mediterranean Region.
     
Tourism in Bali

  

       Images of rice paddies, beautiful beaches and temples, and
a fascinating culture   draw tourists from all around the world to
the enchanting island of Bali, Indonesia. The   tourism plan for
Bali intended to cater to upper-class tourists by catering them
with luxury   resorts, and to protect the island's culture by
building these resorts in the southern   peninsula of the island
away from the local population.  However, the development of  
tourism was not very well regulated and never took into
consideration the impact to the   environment, and it got an
unexpected amount of young budget travelers, which caused the  
boom of locally owned tourist facilities all over the island.  The
rapid tourism   development of Bali has had a great effect on its
natural environment,  affecting water   resources, increasing
pollution and localized flooding, as well as putting pressure on
the   island's infrastructure.
     
  
Cancun Tourism

 
 

       In  Cancun, Mexico, one of the most popular tourist
destinations in Mexico, there is   a beautiful turquoise lagoon,
filled with various indigenous species, and surrounded by   white
sandy beaches and an ocean filled with coral.  Unfortunately,
tourism has   "extensively damaged the lagoon, obliterated sand
dunes, led to the extinction of varying   species of animals and
fish, and destroyed the rainforest which surrounds" the island.  
It was only twenty years after it was developed, that the
government of Mexico   decided to limit projects along the coast to
prevent further damage to the island's   environment.
     
 
Jamaica's Tourism Trade
  


       Tourism is the Jamaica's largest foreign exchange earner and
fastest growing   industry, and its natural resources, such as its
beaches, clear water and vegetation, are the   primary selling
points for tourists.  But the increasing pressures of tourism on
the island   have caused severe environmental problems:  inadequate
sewage systems has caused the   deterioration of water quality and
damage to the coral reefs; construction of the shoreline   has
caused severe beach erosion due to the obliteration of sand dunes
and has caused   wetland destruction.  Even the crafts industry has
contributed to the environmental   degradation of Jamaica by
causing the reduction of black coral formations and encouraging  
the theft of coral reefs for souvenir production.  As a response,
the Jamaican government   created the National Resources
Conservation Authority to manage the physical   environment,
require environmental impact assessments for any type of
development, and   to promote environmental education.
     
 
Tobago Oil and Tourism
   
  
       After the decline of oil revenues in the 1980's, Trinidad
and Tobago turned to   tourism in order to resolve its serious
economic problems.  Tourism was seen as a labor   intensive
activity that would raise employment numbers and generate more
revenue for the   country.  However, the country proceeded without
any assessment on the environmental   impacts of tourism for their
islands.  As a result, several environmental problems have   arisen
in Trinidad and Tobago.  There are shortages of water due to the
overpopulation of   tourists on the island; sand has been depleted
for construction, which has damaged beaches   and destroyed the
habitat of turtles, where they come and lay their eggs.  The most 
 damaging effect of tourism has been the destruction of coral
reefs, as they are harvested for   sale to tourists and destroyed
by tourists stepping on them as they enter the water.     
 
  
IV.  CASE ANALYSIS

       By looking at the frequency counts of several categories in
the Trade and   Environment Database of these five cases, one can
better compare the different situations   occurring in each of
these areas.  In this paper, three specific categories will be
compared:    Major Environmental Problem, Impact and Effect, and
Type of Measure.   

       Looking at the differences in the major environmental
problem for each case, it is   evident how many different problems
tourism can cause to the environment.  Two of the   cases, report
pollution as their major problem, which was caused by the
increasing   amounts of people that have to be accommodated in an
area that was not previously   prepared to do so.  This is
primarily due to inadequate infrastructures that cannot properly  
dispose of the excessive amounts of waste.  In Jamaica, the sewage
disposal system is not   very effective.  Many hotels have
treatment plants, but they usually cannot effectively   handle the
large volumes of waste that need to be treated.  The case study
cites that the   average tourist visiting Jamaica consumes "ten
times as much water and produces three   times as much solid waste"
as a local citizen. (25)  In the Mediterranean, many of the  
coastal areas have been overbuilt and overrun by tourists.  There
are few and not very   effective sewage treatment plants in the
area, and thus, much of the urban waste is dumped   into the sea. 
And it is not only these two cases that have this problem.  In
fact, all of the   cases report that none of these tourist areas
had an adequate infrastructure to handle the   ever-increasing
amounts of tourists arriving every year.

       The Cancun case reported deforestation as its major
environmental problem, which   may indicate its proximity or
location within a tropical forest.  This deforestation was   caused
essentially by the overconstruction of hotels and other facilities
catering to tourism.    Deforestation leads to wildlife destruction
and further environmental damages, since   forests are so important
for the maintenance of the entire habitat.    
       The cases on Bali and Tobago reported habitat loss as their
major environmental   problem, perhaps because, being small
islands, their ecosystems are much more fragile and  
interdependent.  Damage to a certain part of the ecosystem can have
serious effects on its   other components, especially in such an
isolated and delicate environment.  Both of these   cases have
reported beach erosion and other types of land degradation,
pollution,   inadequate waste-disposal infrastructure, and water
shortages, which cause competition   between the tourist industry
and the local population.  

       The impacts of tourism on environmental problems do not seem
to differ so much   across cases.  All of the cases reported that
tourism had a medium impact on the   environment, except for
Jamaica, which reported a high impact.  This trend might indicate 
 that tourism is not as harmful to the environment as other
industries could be, but that it still   has a significant impact. 
The Jamaica case illustrates what can happen where there can be  
an extremely uncontrolled development of tourism, which can
completely overwhelm the   site's carrying capacity.  The
environmental degradation reported in Jamaica includes   pollution
of land and coastal waters, reef damage and severe beach erosion,
deforestation,   and destruction of wetlands. (26)  The other
cases, however, do indicate that if   uncontrolled and unplanned
tourism development continues, their problems may escalate to   the
level of Jamaica's.

      For the last category of comparison, Type of Measure, all
cases adopted the same:    a regulatory standard.  In all these
cases, there seems to have been no regulatory body or   law for
controlling tourism developments, a fact which was most surprising
for the   Mediterranean case, since the region is part of the
developed world.  Tourism seems to   have developed on its own, in
each of these cases, without any proper planning or control,   and
especially without regard to any environmental impact assessment. 
The lack of   regulations allowed for rapid increases in tourist
numbers in short periods of time and   overconstruction of hotels
in shore areas and beaches, all of which has overwhelmed the  
environmental carrying capacity and infrastructure of these areas. 


       As a result of the environmental degradation caused by
tourism, all of these tourist   areas adopted different regulatory
standards.  Several laws were passed in the   Mediterranean area,
including a directive passed by the EU, where Mediterranean  
countries were to measure pollution levels in the water.  There was
also the Mediterranean   Action Plan, and the Environmental Program
for the Mediterranean, and the Blue Plan.  In   Bali, the land-use
stature is being revised, which will set new parameters for
tourism.    Meanwhile, the government of Indonesia was forced to
freeze hotel construction and to   diversify Bali's economy.

       In the case of Cancun, the government of Mexico established
local and regional   zoning laws that restrict development and bans
development in conservation zones of the   Cancun-Tulum corridor,
locate in the states of Yucatan and Quintana Roo.  In Trinidad and 
 Tobago, a master tourism plan was developed, based on a loan by
the Interamerican   Development  Bank.  In Jamaica, the government
resorted to establishing the National   Resources Conservation
Authority to mange the physical environment, require  
environmental impact assessments for any proposed developments,
with the authority to   halt projects that violate the
requirements, and to promote environmental education.

       Ecotourism has also been prescribed as the alternative
solution to tourism   development for all the cases.  Ecotourism
allows for a more sustainable alternative to   mass tourism, not
only benefiting the environment, but the local population as well. 
  Involving the local people from the planning stages throughout
the entire development of   the tourism project is crucial for the
success of ecotourism.  In this way, they will benefit   from the
revenues of tourism, becoming aware that it benefits them and their
environment,   not just the already wealthy and powerful
transnational corporations and people.      

V.  FURTHER INFORMATION

A. Bibliography

Mathieson, Alister and Geoffrey Wall.  Tourism:  Economic, Physical
and Social      Impacts.  London:  Longman, 1982.

Mieczkowski, Zbigniew.  Environmental Issues of Tourism and
Recreation.  Lanham:  UP      of America, 1995.

B. WWW Sites

Tourism
in Bali 

Cancun
Tourism 

Jamaica's
Tourism Trade 

Mediterranean
Pollution and Tourism 

Tobago Oil
and Tourism 

Small Islands Information
Network 

Tournet

PATA and the
Environment 

El Planeta Platica

Articles
on Tourism and Environment 

Tourism in Costa Rica

A Green Economy for Hawaii

Vietnam
stakes tough laws on environment 

Africa
- Environment and Wildlife 

C. Endnotes

(1) Alister Mathieson and Geoffrey Wall, Tourism:  Economic,
Physical and Social Impacts, (London:  Longman, 1982), 96.

(2) Ibid., 98.

(3) Ibid.

(4) Zbigniew Mieczkowski, Environmental Issues of Tourism and
Recreation, (Lanham:  UP of America, 1995), 310.

(5) Mathieson and Wall, 102.

(6) Ibid., 104.

(7) Ibid., 103.

(8) Ibid., 104.

(9) Ibid., 107.

(10) Ibid., 109.

(11) Ibid., 108.

(12) Ibid., 109.

(13) Ibid., 121.

(14) Ibid.

(15) Ibid.

(16) Mieczkowski, 253.

(17) Ibid., 254.

(18) Ibid., 256.

(19) Ibid., 257.

(20) Ibid., 258-9.

(21) Ibid., 261.

(22) Ibid., 262.

(23) Ibid., 271.

(24) Ibid., 272.

(25) ../../medit.htm

(26) ../../jamtour.htm